By occupying French Indochina, Japan successfully cut off a vital supply route that the United States had been using to aid China in its fight against Japanese aggression.

This escalation was unacceptable to U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, who responded swiftly by freezing all Japanese assets in the United States.

In addition, Roosevelt imposed an embargo on vital exports, including oil and metals, hoping these measures would cripple Japan’s war effort and bring the Japanese government to the negotiating table to end their campaign in China.

By the 1930s, Japan’s expansionist policies intensified, driven by a desire to secure the resources needed to fuel its growing economy and military.

In 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria, marking a significant escalation in its imperial ambitions.

Following a staged incident known as the Mukden Incident, Japanese forces swiftly overran the region, exploiting Manchuria's vast natural resources, including coal, iron, and fertile land, which were critical for Japan's growing industrial and military needs.

After the invasion, Japan established the puppet state of Manchukuo in 1932, placing the last Chinese emperor, Pu Yi, as its nominal leader under Japanese control.

The invasion not only demonstrated Japan’s willingness to defy international norms, but it also strained relations with Western powers, particularly the United States, and the League of Nations.

The League condemned the invasion, leading Japan to withdraw from the organization in 1933, signaling its intent to pursue aggressive expansion without international oversight.

The island was also home to a significant U.S. military presence, with the Navy's Pacific Fleet stationed at Pearl Harbor.

The presence of the military shaped much of life on the island, especially in the years leading up to the Second World War.

Oahu was seen as a critical outpost for the United States in the Pacific, and military bases like Hickam Field, Schofield Barracks, and Ford Island housed thousands of servicemen.

For the servicemen stationed on Oahu, life before the attack was a mix of training, duty, and leisure.

Off-duty, many soldiers and sailors enjoyed the island’s beaches, restaurants, and bars, with Waikiki Beach being a favorite spot.

Ford Island, situated in the middle of Pearl Harbor, was acquired by the U.S. in 1917 for joint Army and Navy use, marking the beginning of significant military aviation development in the region.

This purchase allowed the U.S. military to establish airfields and aviation infrastructure to support reconnaissance and defence operations in the Pacific.

By the 1930s, Ford Island had become a critical element in the U.S. military's ability to project power over the Pacific Ocean.

The first wave, consisting of 183 planes, would focus on the most valuable targets: battleships and airfields.

Torpedo bombers would attack ships docked at Battleship Row, while dive bombers targeted aircraft on the ground to limit the U.S.’s ability to respond.

The first wave also included fighters tasked with eliminating any American planes that might attempt to take off and defend the base.

The second wave, consisting of 170 planes, would target remaining ships and additional airfields, aiming to inflict as much damage as possible before U.S. forces could mount a defense.

Despite its careful planning, Operation Z had a few key oversights. Most notably, the U.S. aircraft carriers, which were not in Pearl Harbor during the attack, were left intact.

Additionally, critical shore-based infrastructure, including fuel storage and repair facilities, were not targeted, allowing the U.S. Navy to recover more quickly than Japan anticipated.

While tactically successful in causing heavy damage, the Japanese plan did not achieve its long-term strategic goal of neutralizing U.S. naval power in the Pacific.

Despite his key role in planning the attack on Pearl Harbor, Yamamoto had deep reservations about the operation and Japan’s broader strategy.

He recognized that Japan’s limited industrial capacity could not sustain a prolonged conflict against the United States, a nation with far greater economic and military resources.

Yamamoto famously warned that, while he could deliver a successful attack against the U.S. fleet, he feared that Japan could not win a drawn-out war.

He stated, “I can run wild for six months… after that, I have no expectation of success.”

On the day of the attack, Yamamoto remained on board his flagship, Nagato, far from the battlefield. As reports came in of the attack’s success, he expressed mixed emotions.

Although pleased with the tactical victory, Yamamoto understood that the failure to destroy American aircraft carriers and vital infrastructure would eventually prove costly.

His misgivings were ultimately validated as the war progressed, and Japan faced mounting challenges.

Submarines also played an important tactical role. Japan deployed a fleet of submarines, including several “midget submarines,” designed to infiltrate the harbor during the attack.

These small, two-man submarines were intended to sneak into Pearl Harbor and strike U.S. warships with torpedoes during the aerial assault.

Although these submarines largely failed in their mission—most were detected and destroyed before reaching their targets—they represented a key aspect of Japan’s multi-layered approach to the attack.

This extensive reconnaissance and intelligence-gathering, combined with the use of submarines, was part of Japan’s careful planning to ensure the Pearl Harbor attack would be as devastating as possible, though certain key elements, such as the location of American aircraft carriers, remained elusive.

Outerbridge, recognizing the seriousness of the situation, immediately radioed a report to naval headquarters, stating that the Ward had engaged an enemy submarine.

Despite his clear communication, the initial message was not taken seriously by senior officials, who likely believed it could have been a mistake or false alarm.

Determined to ensure the threat was understood, Outerbridge sent a second, more detailed message: “We have attacked, fired upon, and dropped depth charges upon submarine operating in defensive sea area.”

This report was sent just 70 minutes before the larger Japanese naval and air assault on Pearl Harbor began.

Looking down, Fort immediately recognized the distinctive markings of a Japanese fighter.

As she continued to watch, she saw something detach from one of the planes and glisten in the morning light before it descended rapidly toward the ground.

Moments later, a massive explosion erupted at Pearl Harbor. In her words, "My heart turned over convulsively when the bomb exploded in the middle of the Harbor."

Pilot Robert Tyce of K-5 Flying Service was killed by a machine gun bullet, though no other injuries occurred.

After Cornelia Fort made it back to the hangar safely and tried to explain that the Japanese were attacking, no one believed her until a mechanic came in shouting that a Japanese plane had just killed Bob Tyce.

He became the first recorded civilian death on that day.

The airport sustained damage from aircraft cannon and machine gun fire, but no bombs were dropped.

A privately-owned Aeronca was shot at while airborne, and another Aeronca, piloted by Oahu legislator Roy Vitousek, was pursued by two Japanese planes near Kahuku Point. Both planes landed safely despite the confusion. Marguerite Gambo, flying with a student, safely landed after spotting the attack, though two of her planes did not return that day.

Reflecting on the events later, Fort recorded her experience in her flight logbook with a simple, but powerful entry: "Flight interrupted by Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor."

in service from 1931 to 1945. It was specifically designed for naval warfare during the Second World War and optimized for attacks on ships in shallow harbors.

The Type 97 was a 17.7-inch (45 cm) diameter torpedo used by the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II, specifically designed for the Kō-hyōteki-class midget submarines.

It was based on the larger 24-inch Type 93 "Long Lance" torpedo used by surface vessels but modified to fit the smaller 18-inch torpedo tubes of the midget submarines.

In addition to aerial torpedoes, the Japanese also deployed Type 97 torpedoes from Kō-hyōteki-class midget submarines.

The Type 97 was a smaller version of the Type 93 "Long Lance" torpedo, modified to fit the midget submarines’ torpedo tubes.

However, the deployment of these submarines and their torpedoes was far less successful.

Several of the midget submarines were either destroyed or disabled before they could effectively engage U.S. warships.

On the morning of December 7, 1941, the U.S. Army SCR-270 radar station at Opana Point, located on Oahu's northern tip, picked up unusual activity.

This radar station, one of the early warning systems set up on the island, had been operational for only a few months.

Joseph Lockard, a radar operator stationed at Opana Point, was on duty that morning along with his colleague, Private George Elliot.

The two men were relatively inexperienced but had been trained to spot and interpret radar signals.

B-17s, known for their large size and ability to fly in groups, would have shown up as a large cluster on the radar, similar to what the two operators were seeing.

The expected arrival of these aircraft had been briefed to military personnel, which further reinforced the belief that this large blip was part of a routine flight operation.

When Lockard reported the large formation of planes, Tyler, with limited experience and unaware of the real threat, dismissed the report.

He reassured the radar operators that the planes they were seeing were likely the B-17 bombers that were expected to arrive from the mainland that morning.

Despite Lockard's insistence that the number of planes was unusually large, Tyler did not take further action. Lockard and Elliot were left watching helplessly as the radar blip continued to close in on the island.

Meanwhile, in the air, the first wave of Japanese planes—183 aircraft in total—was rapidly approaching Oahu.

This wave included a mix of bombers, fighters, and torpedo planes, all launched from six Japanese aircraft carriers positioned to the north of Hawaii.

Their mission was to strike a devastating blow against the U.S. Pacific Fleet stationed at Pearl Harbor, crippling American naval power in the Pacific.

The commander of the Japanese task force, Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo, had meticulously planned the attack for maximum surprise. the 7th December, a Sunday morning, was chosen deliberately, as it was believed that U.S. personnel would be more relaxed, with ships less fully manned and defenses potentially down.

At the same time, the USS West Virginia was hit by multiple torpedoes and bombs, sustaining severe damage before sinking to the bottom of the harbor.

The USS Oklahoma fared even worse—after being struck by four torpedoes in rapid succession, the battleship capsized completely, trapping hundreds of sailors inside.

As the ship overturned, its bottom and propeller were exposed above the water, a grim sight that underscored the overwhelming power of the Japanese attack.

In addition to the USS Arizona, USS Oklahoma, and USS West Virginia, several other ships were either sunk or damaged during the first wave:

• USS California (BB-44): The USS California was hit by two bombs and two torpedoes, causing severe flooding. The crew attempted to save the ship, but it eventually sank in shallow water. It was later refloated, repaired, and returned to service in 1944.

One of the key differences between the first and second waves was the level of resistance encountered by the Japanese pilots.

During the first wave, the element of surprise had given the attackers a significant advantage, and American anti-aircraft guns were slow to respond.

However, by the time the second wave arrived, American personnel had managed to organize a more effective defense.

Anti-aircraft fire was more concentrated and intense, and some American aircraft had even managed to take to the skies, though in limited numbers.

By the end of the second wave, Pearl Harbor was left in ruins. In just two hours, the Japanese had destroyed or severely damaged eight U.S. battleships, along with several destroyers, cruisers, and auxiliary vessels.

The destruction of the American airfields left the U.S. military with little ability to respond in the immediate aftermath of the attack. Over 2,400 Americans were killed, with more than 1,000 wounded.

The second wave, while not as surprising or overwhelming as the first, nonetheless played a critical role in consolidating the damage and ensuring that the U.S. Pacific Fleet was crippled.

The Japanese, did on the other hand, miss one airfield, which is surprising given their attention to detail when planning their attack. Haleiwa Fighter Strip was a small airfield for emergency landings.

Because of its insignificance, Japan ignored it when planning the attack.
This meant that planes from Haleiwa, such as P-40 Warhawks piloted by George Welch and Kenneth Taylor, were able to fight in the air. Welch shot down four planes, and Taylor shot down two.

Both were awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for their bravery in the face of overwhelming odds.

The hospitals on Oahu were immediately overwhelmed by the sheer number of casualties.

The military hospital at Pearl Harbor and civilian hospitals in Honolulu struggled to cope with the flood of wounded, many of whom suffered severe burns or injuries from explosions.

Nurses and doctors worked tirelessly to treat the wounded, but the sheer scale of the disaster meant that many of the injured could not be saved.

Civilians, alongside military medical staff, rushed to aid the wounded, often improvising with limited resources. The scenes of overcrowded wards and makeshift operating areas highlighted the human toll of the attack.

Infrastructure on Oahu sustained significant damage, though the Japanese missed several key targets that could have further crippled the U.S. recovery efforts.

The oil storage tanks, repair facilities, and dry docks at Pearl Harbor remained intact, which allowed the U.S. Navy to repair many of the damaged ships in the months following the attack.

Additionally, the U.S. aircraft carriers, which were out at sea during the attack, survived unscathed.

This oversight would later prove to be one of Japan’s critical failures, as those carriers played a pivotal role in the eventual U.S. counteroffensive in the Pacific.

Within an hour of Roosevelt’s address, Congress overwhelmingly voted to declare war on Japan.

The vote was nearly unanimous, with only one dissenting voice, Representative Jeannette Rankin of Montana, who had also voted against U.S. involvement in the First World War.

The U.S. government’s decision to declare war was met with widespread public support, as the American people, initially divided on entering the war, were now galvanized by the attack.

The unity of purpose that followed Pearl Harbor led to a surge in enlistments, with thousands of Americans volunteering to join the armed forces in the days and weeks that followed.

Roosevelt also took steps to strengthen U.S. alliances. Just days after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States, in line with their alliance with Japan. In response, the U.S. declared war on both nations, fully entering World War II on the side of the Allies.

Roosevelt worked closely with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin to forge a united front against the Axis Powers, leading to the formalization of the "Grand Alliance."

This cooperation between the U.S., Britain, and the Soviet Union would prove instrumental in turning the tide of the war.

Internally, the attack also led to controversial decisions. The U.S. government, spurred by fears of espionage and sabotage, authorized the internment of Japanese Americans, many of whom were U.S. citizens, under Executive Order 9066 in February 1942.

This policy would remain one of the darkest chapters of the U.S. response to Pearl Harbor, as thousands of Japanese Americans were forcibly relocated to internment camps.

The U.S. reaction to the attack on Pearl Harbor was swift and transformative. President Roosevelt’s leadership and Congress’ declaration of war marked the beginning of a full-scale mobilization of American military, industrial, and social resources.

The attack unified the American public and government, propelling the country into World War II with unprecedented urgency and determination. While the war would bring both triumph and tragedy, the Pearl Harbor attack undeniably changed the course of U.S. history.

Immediately following the attack, naval crews, divers, and salvage teams worked around the clock to assess the extent of the damage.

Eight battleships, including the USS Arizona, Oklahoma, West Virginia, and California, had been sunk or severely damaged.

Despite the destruction, many of the ships were not total losses.

Divers patched holes, cleared debris, and pumped water from flooded compartments to refloat ships that had been sunk in shallow waters.