The period of September 1918 was a time of significant upheaval and transformation across Europe and Russia, as the First World War neared its conclusion and the Russian Civil War intensified.
This article explores a variety of key events and developments that shaped this turbulent period.
It covers pivotal military engagements, such as the Battle of Saint-Mihiel and the Vardar Offensive, which altered the course of the war and contributed to the collapse of the Central Powers.
...the suffering and struggles...
The political landscape was equally volatile, with significant occurrences like the establishment of the Revolutionary Military Council in Soviet Russia, the brutal Red Terror campaign, and the massacres in Baku.
In addition, the article delves into the suffering and struggles faced by smaller nations, including the tragic massacre of Armenians in Baku and Bulgaria’s desperate exit from the war, marked by the signing of an armistice with the Allies.
Figures such as Leon Trotsky, General Allenby, and Private Henry Tandey, who reportedly spared Adolf Hitler during the First World War, are also mentioned.
...the social and political dynamics...
The events of September 1918 had far-reaching implications, not only for the immediate outcome of the First World War but also for the social and political dynamics in the years that followed, setting the stage for the shaping of new national boundaries and ideologies in the post-war era.
Revolutionary Military Council of Soviet Russia was established, 2nd September 1918
The Revolutionary Military Council (Russian: Революционный Военный Совет, romanized: Revolyutsionny Voyenny Sovyet, lit. 'Revolutionary Military Council'), often referred to as the Revolutionary War Council or Revvoyensoviet (Реввоенсовет), served as the supreme military authority of Soviet Russia and later the Soviet Union.
Established on September 2, 1918, by decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (VTsIK), it was created under the "Decree
Declaring the Soviet Republic a Military Camp." This marked a critical step in consolidating military control during the turbulent years following the Russian Revolution.
...placing all military fronts and organizations under its authority...
Before the creation of Revvoyensoviet, military authority was divided between the Supreme Military Council (Vysshy voyenny sovyet) and the operations division of the People's Commissariat on War and Navy Affairs.
The decree establishing Revvoyensoviet centralized command, placing all military fronts and organizations under its authority.
The chairman of Revvoyensoviet, who also served as the People's Commissar (Narkom) of War and Navy Affairs, was its chief decision-maker, supported by a commander-in-chief responsible for strategic and operational leadership.
...the council played a pivotal role...
Leon Trotsky, one of the key architects of the Red Army, was appointed the first chairman of Revvoyensoviet.
His initial commander-in-chief, Jukums Vācietis, a Latvian rifleman, was succeeded in 1919 by Sergei Kamenev, who held the role until 1924.
Under their leadership, the council played a pivotal role in organizing and directing Soviet military efforts during the Russian Civil War.
On November 30, 1918, the Council of Labour and Defense was formed to streamline resource mobilization for defense.
Chaired by Lenin, its members included Trotsky, Joseph Stalin (representing VTsIK), and other narkoms. Revvoyensoviet continued to function as the military's supreme authority until its dissolution in 1934, as part of broader Soviet administrative restructuring.
Sergei Kamenev, commander-in-chief of the Revolutionary Military Council (1919-1924)
Bolsheviks announce the Red Terror, 3rd September 1918
On September 3, 1918, the Bolshevik government of Soviet Russia officially announced the beginning of the Red Terror, a campaign of severe repression and violence aimed at eliminating political opponents and consolidating Bolshevik power.
The announcement, published in the government newspaper Izvestia as an "Appeal to the Working Class," marked the start of a systematic effort to suppress counter-revolutionary activity and dissent.
This declaration followed escalating tensions and acts of political violence during the Russian Civil War, with the Bolsheviks framing the campaign as a necessary measure to safeguard the revolution against internal and external threats.
First issue of journal Krasny Terror (Red Terror) with an article by Martin Latsis justifying the Red Terror.
...attempted to assassinate Vladimir Lenin...
One of the first prominent victims of the Red Terror was Fanny Kaplan, a member of the Socialist Revolutionary Party.
Just days earlier, on August 30, 1918, Kaplan had attempted to assassinate Vladimir Lenin, shooting and severely wounding him as he left a factory meeting in Moscow.
Kaplan reportedly viewed Lenin as a "traitor to the Revolution," blaming him and the Bolshevik leadership for betraying the ideals of the broader revolutionary movement.
Following her arrest, Kaplan was interrogated and, on the 2rd September, swiftly executed without trial.
Her death symbolized the Bolsheviks’ uncompromising stance toward political rivals and marked a turning point in the intensification of state-led violence.
Vladimir Pchelin's 1927 depiction of Fanny Kaplan's assassination attempt on Vladimir Lenin. Kaplan's assassination attempt on Lenin on August 30, 1918, was a pivotal event that directly triggered the Red Terror. Following the attack, Bolshevik leaders launched a campaign of mass arrests, executions, and political repression to eliminate perceived enemies and consolidate power. The attempt on Lenin's life justified the escalation of violence against counter-revolutionaries, intensifying state-sanctioned terror. This marked a turning point in Soviet policy, solidifying Bolshevik authority through fear and the suppression of dissent.
...involved mass arrests, executions, and imprisonment...
The Red Terror, overseen by the Bolshevik secret police, the Cheka, involved mass arrests, executions, and imprisonment of suspected counter-revolutionaries, including former tsarist officials, members of rival socialist factions, intellectuals, and other perceived enemies of the state.
The campaign was justified by Bolshevik leaders, including Lenin, as a necessary tool for the survival of the revolution.
However, it also entrenched a culture of fear and repression that would come to define Soviet governance in the years that followed.
Battle of Saint-Mihiel, 12th – 15th September 1918
The Battle of Saint-Mihiel, fought from the 12th - 15th September 1918, was a pivotal engagement during the First World War and marked the first major offensive led solely by the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) under General John J. Pershing.
This battle, occurring in northeastern France near the town of Saint-Mihiel, was part of a broader Allied effort to push German forces out of fortified positions and hasten the end of the war.
For nearly four years, German troops had occupied the Saint-Mihiel salient, a bulge in the front line that posed a significant threat to Allied communications and transportation routes.
The salient's capture was strategically crucial, as its elimination would improve the Allies' ability to coordinate movements along the Western Front and pave the way for further offensives.
The American-led operation began on September 12 with a massive artillery bombardment, followed by an assault involving over 500,000 American troops, supported by French forces and tanks under the command of Colonel George S. Patton.
John Joseph "Black Jack" Pershing. (1860–1948) was a U.S. Army general who led the American Expeditionary Forces during the First World War, playing a key role in securing Allied victory on the Western Front.
...were caught off guard by the scale and intensity of the attack...
The Allies advanced swiftly, aided by poor weather that hampered German reconnaissance. The Germans, already in the process of a planned withdrawal from the salient, were caught off guard by the scale and intensity of the attack.
By the 15th September, the AEF had successfully secured the salient, capturing over 15,000 German soldiers, more than 400 artillery pieces, and liberating the region.
The victory demonstrated the growing strength and effectiveness of American forces and bolstered Allied morale.
It also solidified General Pershing's reputation as a capable commander. The Battle of Saint-Mihiel was a significant precursor to the Meuse-Argonne Offensive, the largest and final Allied campaign of the war.
It underscored the importance of American involvement in tipping the balance on the Western Front and contributed to the eventual Allied victory in November 1918.
September Days Massacre, 14th – 16th September 1918
The "September Days" of 1918 marked a tragic massacre of Armenians in Baku, taking place from the 14th to 16th September 1918.
This event unfolded in the chaotic aftermath of World War I and the Russian Civil War, as political and ethnic tensions in the South Caucasus reached their peak.
Following the capture of Baku by the Ottoman-backed Azerbaijani Army of Islam, led by Nuri Pasha, thousands of Armenians were killed in one of the most harrowing episodes of the era.
...tensions were exacerbated...
Baku, a multi-ethnic city and a key oil hub, had been a battleground for control between various factions, including Bolsheviks, Armenian forces, Azerbaijani nationalists, and Ottoman troops.
Prior to the September Days, tensions were exacerbated by the March Days of 1918, when Bolshevik and Armenian forces fought against Azerbaijani and Muslim residents of Baku, resulting in significant casualties among Muslims.
The events of March left deep grievances among the Azerbaijani and Muslim populations, fueling desires for revenge.
...violence erupted against the Armenian population...
In September 1918, the Army of Islam launched a successful offensive against the Baku Soviet, forcing the withdrawal of Bolshevik and Armenian forces.
As Azerbaijani and Ottoman forces entered the city, large-scale violence erupted against the Armenian population.
Civilians were indiscriminately targeted, with thousands killed, homes looted, and properties destroyed. Estimates of the death toll range from 10,000 to 20,000.
...driven by ethnic hatred...
The massacre was driven by ethnic hatred, political rivalries, and the desire to reassert Azerbaijani control over Baku.
It left a lasting scar on the region, further deepening the animosities between Armenians and Azerbaijanis.
The "September Days" remain a dark chapter in the history of the South Caucasus, symbolizing the devastating consequences of war, nationalism, and interethnic conflict during this turbulent period.
Vardar Offensive, 15th – 29th September 1918
The Vardar Offensive, launched in September 1918, was a decisive military campaign on the Balkan Front during the First World War that led to the collapse of the Central Powers in the region.
It marked the culmination of efforts by the Allied Army of the Orient to break through entrenched Bulgarian and German positions along the Macedonian front and forced Bulgaria to seek an armistice, dramatically altering the course of the war in the Balkans.
The offensive began on September 14, 1918, spearheaded by a multinational Allied force under the command of French General Louis Franchet d’Espèrey.
The army included French, British, Serbian, Greek, and Italian troops, who faced a heavily fortified Bulgarian-German defensive line along the Vardar River and Dobro Pole.
...overwhelming the enemy with a concentrated assault...
The Allies' strategy focused on overwhelming the enemy with a concentrated assault at key points, particularly at Dobro Pole, a critical Bulgarian defensive stronghold.
Following a massive artillery bombardment, the Allies launched their attack. Serbian troops played a pivotal role, advancing through the rugged terrain of Dobro Pole and breaking through enemy lines on the 15th September.
The success at Dobro Pole created a cascading effect, with Bulgarian forces retreating in disarray and opening gaps in the Central Powers’ defensive network.
The Allies pressed their advantage, advancing rapidly into the Vardar River valley and capturing strategic points, including Prilep and Skopje.
...began to disintegrate....
The Bulgarian army, demoralized and overwhelmed, began to disintegrate. Facing imminent defeat, Bulgaria would eventually sign an armistice with the Allies later in the month, effectively ending its involvement in the war.
The Vardar Offensive not only liberated Serbian territory but also destabilized the Central Powers’ southern flank, hastening the broader collapse of Austria-Hungary and Germany.
It was a turning point that underscored the strategic importance of the Balkan Front in the First World War.
Establishment of the Order of the Red Banner, 16th September 1918
The Order of the Red Banner, established on September 16, 1918, by the Soviet government, was created to recognize distinguished military service and acts of bravery, especially during the turbulent years of the Civil War.
Soviet army officer Vasily Blyukher was the first recipient of the prestigious medalr, an award that would be granted to him four more times throughout his career.
Blyukher received this honor for his leadership and military achievements during the Russian Civil War, particularly his significant role in combating the White Army, which sought to overthrow the Bolshevik government.
...a symbol of the Soviet Union's military power...
The Order itself was a symbol of the Soviet Union's military power and ideological commitment to the success of the Bolshevik cause.
Its design featured a red banner with the hammer and sickle, representing the union of workers and peasants and the victory of socialism.
The award was not only a recognition of individual acts of heroism but also a powerful propaganda tool, helping to inspire soldiers and reinforce Soviet ideals during a period of intense conflict.
The Order of the Red Banner was initially awarded for outstanding military performance during the Civil War, where it played a key role in motivating Red Army troops fighting against internal enemies like the White movement and external threats such as foreign intervention.
...awarded both to individuals and entire military units...
It was awarded both to individuals and entire military units, with many recipients recognized for their leadership, battlefield successes, and dedication to the Soviet cause.
During the Second World War, the Order of the Red Banner became one of the most prestigious decorations in the Soviet Union.
It was awarded to generals, officers, and soldiers for extraordinary feats during critical battles, such as the Battle of Stalingrad, the Siege of Leningrad, and the Battle of Kursk.
...those that participated in pivotal campaigns...
Entire military units were also honored with the Order, including those that participated in pivotal campaigns that helped defeat Nazi Germany.
Through both world wars, the Order of the Red Banner was an enduring symbol of Soviet valor, resilience, and ideological commitment to the defense of the socialist state.
It reinforced the idea that victory came through collective effort and personal sacrifice, becoming a key part of the military traditions that persisted through the Soviet era.
Mid-European Union Established, 16th September 1918
The Mid-European Union was an intellectual and political initiative aimed at promoting cooperation among the newly independent nations of Central and Eastern Europe.
Its creation was driven by the desire to foster regional unity, ensure security, and strengthen the independence of smaller nations emerging from the collapse of empires like Austria-Hungary, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire.
The idea for the Mid-European Union emerged during the First World War, spearheaded by émigré leaders and intellectuals from Central and Eastern Europe who were exiled in the United States.
...brought together representatives from various ethnic groups...
The Union’s foundation was formalized on 16th September 1918 at the Mid-European Union Congress held in Philadelphia, which brought together representatives from various ethnic groups, including Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Hungarians, Romanians, Ukrainians, Lithuanians, and others.
These representatives envisioned a united bloc of nations that could collaborate on political, economic, and cultural fronts while resisting domination by larger powers.
The Union’s primary goal was to advocate for the principle of self-determination, as championed by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson in his Fourteen Points.
Its members sought to create a framework for peaceful coexistence and mutual support, emphasizing shared interests over historical grievances.
A symbolic gesture of their vision was the signing of the Declaration of Common Aims in 1918, which expressed solidarity among the emerging nations and a commitment to freedom and democracy.
...made lasting unity difficult...
However, the practical implementation of the Union’s vision faced significant challenges. Territorial disputes, ethnic tensions, and competing national interests among its members made lasting unity difficult.
Additionally, the post-war treaties, particularly the Treaty of Versailles, created rigid national boundaries that limited cooperation.
Despite its short-lived influence, the Mid-European Union represented an early attempt to address the challenges of fragmentation and foster regional collaboration in a volatile period of history. Its legacy foreshadowed later efforts at European integration.
Murder of Olli Kinkkonen, 18th September 1918
Olli (Olof) Kiukkonen Kinkkonen was a Finnish-American dockworker and logger lynched in Duluth, Minnesota, for renouncing his U.S. citizenship to avoid fighting in the First World War. His tragic death exemplified the vigilante violence and nationalist fervor of the time.
On the 11th September 1918, Kinkkonen, also known as Olli Wirta, and five others formally renounced their citizenship, refusing to participate in the war.
A week later, on the night of September 18, a mob, allegedly members of the Knights of Liberty, confronted Kinkkonen at his boarding house. Pretending to be officials, they abducted him, interrogated him about his loyalty, and subjected him to a humiliating tarring-and-feathering in Congdon Park
...vigilantes claiming responsibility...
The next morning, local newspapers received anonymous calls from the vigilantes claiming responsibility, warning others who had renounced their citizenship to reconsider.
Kinkkonen was not seen alive after the incident. On the 30th September, his body was discovered hanging from a tree in Lester Park, outside Duluth.
Despite the circumstances, authorities ruled his death a suicide, attributing it to his shame over the attack.
However, many, including the socialist newspaper The Truth, accused the Knights of Liberty of murder and criticized Duluth authorities and Governor Joseph Burnquist for failing to take action against the perpetrators.
...buried in an unmarked grave...
Kinkkonen, described as an easy going man uninvolved in labor or anti-war movements, was buried in an unmarked grave in Duluth’s Park Hill Cemetery.
In 1993, the Finnish-American society Työmies placed a marker on his grave reading, “Olli Kinkkonen. 1881–1918. Victim of Warmongers.” His death reflects the intense nationalism and xenophobia of First World War-era America, a period marked by vigilante violence targeting those deemed disloyal.
Kinkkonen’s story has since inspired books, songs, and art, ensuring his memory endures as a symbol of injustice.
Battle of Megiddo, 19th – 25th September 1918
The Battle of Megiddo, fought between the 19th and 25th September 1918, took place on the Plain of Sharon, spanning the areas near Tulkarm, Tabsor, Arara, and the Judean Hills, as well as the Esdralon Plain near Nazareth, Afulah, Beisan, Jenin, and Samakh.
While the battle’s name is tied to the biblical city of Megiddo, which holds symbolic significance, little of the fighting actually occurred near Tel Megiddo, making the name "perhaps misleading." British commander Edmund Allenby chose it for its historical resonance.
...the final major Allied offensive...
The Battle of Megiddo was the final major Allied offensive of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign during the First World War.
The forces involved included the Allied Egyptian Expeditionary Force, comprising three corps, one of which was mounted troops, and the Ottoman Yildirim Army Group, which fielded three armies, each roughly the size of an Allied corps.
The battle unfolded in the central and northern parts of Ottoman Palestine, covering parts of present-day Israel, Syria, and Jordan.
...which broke through Ottoman defensive lines...
The offensive began with attacks by British and Indian infantry divisions, which broke through Ottoman defensive lines along the coast during the Battle of Sharon.
This success was made possible in part by the Arab Revolt, which distracted Ottoman forces by targeting their lines of communication.
The Desert Mounted Corps then exploited the breach, advancing rapidly to nearly encircle the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies in the Judean Hills.
At the same time, the Battle of Nablus occurred in the Judean Hills, followed by attacks on the Ottoman Fourth Army in the Hills of Moab.
...captured significant territory...
The Allies captured significant territory and took tens of thousands of Ottoman prisoners.
After the battle, Daraa fell on the 27th September, Damascus was captured on the 1st October, and operations continued near Aleppo until the Armistice of Mudros was signed, ending hostilities.
General Allenby’s use of creeping barrages, coordinated infantry attacks, and mobile forces—including cavalry, armored cars, and aircraft—proved decisive in breaking the stalemate of trench warfare, while the Arab Revolt also contributed to the Allied success.
26 members of the Baku Soviet revolutionary group are executed, 20th September 1918
The 26 Baku Commissars were Bolshevik and Left Socialist Revolutionary members of the Baku Commune, which briefly governed Baku, the capital of present-day Azerbaijan, from April to July 1918.
Led by Stepan Shahumyan, the Commune emerged after the violent March Days clashes with the Muslim population.
Despite its brief existence, it introduced significant reforms, including oil industry nationalization, but struggled with food shortages and military threats from the advancing Ottoman forces.
...invited British forces to defend Baku...
On July 25, 1918, Bolsheviks resigned after losing majority support to a coalition of Dashnaks, Right Socialist Revolutionaries, and Mensheviks, who invited British forces to defend Baku.
The Bolsheviks and their allies were arrested after the fall of the Commune.
In September 1918, as Ottoman forces seized Baku, Red Army soldiers freed the imprisoned commissars.
However, while attempting to escape by sea, their ship was diverted to Krasnovodsk, where local authorities arrested them.
...fueling tension between Britain and the Soviet Union...
On the night of September 20, 1918, 26 commissars, including Shahumyan, were executed near the Trans-Caspian Railway by soldiers of the Ashkhabad Committee, allegedly under Socialist Revolutionary leadership.
Controversy surrounds British involvement, as they were active in the region.
The British denied responsibility, but Soviet officials accused them of influencing the executions, fueling tension between Britain and the Soviet Union.
...portraying them as martyrs...
Soviet historiography memorialized the commissars through art, films, and public works, portraying them as martyrs of the Revolution.
While Soviet claims often blamed British agents, later investigations highlighted internal complexities, including local authorities’ role.
The incident remains a poignant chapter in the early Soviet struggle and the broader conflicts of the Russian Civil War.
Provisional All-Russian Government elected in Ufa, 23rd September 1918
The Provisional All-Russian Government, commonly referred to as the Directory, the Ufa Directory, or the Omsk Directory, was a short-lived government that existed during the Russian Civil War.
It was formed on the 23rd September 1918, at the State Conference in Ufa, resulting from an unstable compromise between various anti-Communist forces in eastern Russia.
This government aimed to continue the Russian Provisional Government that had been overthrown during the October Revolution of 1917.
However, it lasted only two months before being dissolved after a coup that brought Admiral Alexander Kolchak to power in areas of eastern Russia that were free from Communist control.
...cooperation between these two groups was difficult...
The Provisional All-Russian Government was composed of the Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly, which included Socialist Revolutionaries and Kadets from Samara, and the Provisional Siberian Government, consisting of regional politicians and right-wing officers from Omsk.
However, cooperation between these two groups was difficult, marked by rivalry and conflicts such as customs wars and border disputes.
In November 1918, a military coup led by right-wing Kadets, Cossacks, and some Allied support ousted the Provisional Government.
Admiral Kolchak, who had briefly served as the Minister of War, was appointed Supreme Leader of Russia and given the task of forming a new government with no influence from the Socialist Revolutionaries.
...gained recognition from all White Russian factions...
Despite its challenges, the Provisional All-Russian Government gained recognition from all White Russian factions east of the Urals and established a unified foreign policy.
It retained support from Russia's former diplomatic missions abroad.
However, the Directory lacked a large administrative state, relying on the institutions of the Provisional Siberian Government in Omsk, where the Allied powers had also set up diplomatic and military offices.
First aircraft carrier landing in history, 24th September 1918
Richard Bell Davies, a British fighter pilot, made aviation history on the 24th September 1918, when he completed the first true aircraft carrier landing, landing a Sopwith biplane on the bare steel flight deck of the HMS Argus, a pioneering Royal Navy aircraft carrier.
This remarkable achievement marked a major milestone in the development of naval aviation and the future of aircraft carrier operations.
The HMS Argus was the world’s first ship designed from the ground up to operate as an aircraft carrier.
Unlike earlier makeshift carriers, which were converted ships, the Argus featured a full-length flight deck and was purpose-built to launch and recover aircraft.
Richard Bell Davies, a British pilot, achieved the first true aircraft carrier landing on HMS Argus in 1918, revolutionizing naval aviation and showcasing the potential of carrier-based operations.
...an incredibly difficult and dangerous manoeuvre...
At the time, landing an aircraft on a moving ship was considered an incredibly difficult and dangerous maneuver, and no aircraft had yet successfully landed on a carrier deck.
Bell Davies, a skilled and experienced pilot, was chosen to perform this daring task as part of a series of tests to determine the feasibility of carrier-based aviation.
The aircraft he flew, a Sopwith biplane, was a relatively slow and manoeuverable fighter that had proven effective in combat during the First World War.
Landing on the Argus's steel deck, however, required immense precision and skill. The lack of any landing aids, such as arrestor wires or landing lights, made the task even more challenging.
...a testament to his flying abilities...
Bell Davies' successful landing on the Argus was not only a testament to his flying abilities but also demonstrated the potential for aircraft carriers to play a crucial role in naval warfare.
His achievement paved the way for the development of more advanced carrier operations, eventually leading to the large, modern aircraft carriers used by navies around the world today.
Tafas massacre, 27th September 1918
The Tafas massacre, which occurred on the 27th September 1918, was a tragic event in the history of the region now known as Syria.
This massacre took place in the town of Tafas, located in the Daraa Governorate, in southern Syria.
It was a pivotal moment during the final stages of the First World War, as the Ottoman Empire was collapsing and the British-led Allied forces were advancing through the Levant, including the southern territories of Ottoman Syria.
At the time, the town of Tafas was predominantly inhabited by Arabs, many of whom had supported the Arab Revolt against Ottoman rule.
The massacre was a result of tensions between the local population and the retreating Ottoman forces.
...troops and local collaborators retaliated against the people of Tafas...
As the Ottomans were losing control of their territory to the advancing Allied forces, including the British Egyptian Expeditionary Force, Ottoman troops and local collaborators retaliated against the people of Tafas, who were seen as sympathetic to the Arab nationalists.
On September 27, the Ottoman forces, in an act of brutal repression, massacred many of the town's residents, including men, women, and children.
The exact number of victims is unclear, but estimates suggest that hundreds of people were killed in the attack.
The massacre included widespread executions and the destruction of homes, leaving the town in ruins.
It was one of several such reprisals conducted by the retreating Ottoman forces as they sought to maintain control over territories that were slipping from their grasp.
...the larger pattern of violence and reprisals...
The Tafas massacre was part of the larger pattern of violence and reprisals that marked the final days of the Ottoman Empire’s control over the Levant.
It highlighted the complex dynamics of local resistance to Ottoman rule and the extreme measures taken by the empire to crush any form of rebellion as it collapsed in the face of Allied and Arab forces.
This tragic event is remembered as one of the many atrocities that occurred during this tumultuous period in the history of the Middle East.
Radomir Rebellion, 28th September 1918
The Radomir Rebellion, which unfolded in late September 1918, was a key episode in Bulgaria’s tumultuous exit from the First World War.
Sparked by widespread dissatisfaction with the government and the hardships imposed by the war, the rebellion was led by disillusioned soldiers and peasants, supported by elements of the Bulgarian Agrarian National Union (BANU) and other leftist factions.
The revolt marked an attempt to overthrow the monarchy and establish a republic in Bulgaria.
By 1918, Bulgaria was facing immense internal strain. Years of military involvement in the war had exhausted the nation’s resources, while food shortages, inflation, and high casualties bred resentment among soldiers and civilians alike.
...soldiers began deserting in large numbers...
This unrest boiled over after the Allied offensive at the Battle of Dobro Pole in September 1918, which dealt a devastating blow to the Bulgarian army.
Demoralized and unwilling to continue fighting, soldiers began deserting in large numbers and marching back toward their homeland.
The rebellion began on September 27, when mutinous troops seized the town of Radomir, about 50 kilometers south of Sofia, and declared the establishment of a Bulgarian republic.
Led by BANU leader Aleksandar Stamboliyski, a vocal critic of the monarchy and the war, the rebels sought to overthrow Tsar Ferdinand I and institute a government that represented the interests of workers and peasants.
...quickly mobilized to suppress the uprising...
However, the rebellion was short-lived. Royalist forces, still loyal to the monarchy, quickly mobilized to suppress the uprising.
By the 30th September, the rebellion had been crushed, with significant casualties on both sides. Stamboliyski was arrested but would later rise to prominence as Bulgaria’s prime minister.
The Radomir Rebellion reflected the deep societal divisions and discontent that characterized Bulgaria during the war.
It also signaled the beginning of the end for Tsar Ferdinand, who abdicated in October 1918, paving the way for political reform.
Hitler avoids death, 28th September 1918
On the 28th 1918, an event occurred during World War I that would become part of the war's lore, though the details remain unclear.
Private Henry Tandey, a British soldier serving near the French village of Marcoing, reportedly encountered a wounded German soldier and chose not to shoot him, sparing the life of 29-year-old Lance Corporal Adolf Hitler.
Tandey, a native of Warwickshire, had fought in several major battles during the war, including the First Battle of Ypres in 1914 and the Battle of the Somme in 1916, where he was injured.
After recovering from his injuries, he was reassigned to the 9th Battalion and again wounded during the Third Battle of Ypres in 1917.
...a wounded soldier appeared in his line of fire...
By 1918, he was serving with the 5th Duke of Wellington Regiment, and it was during this period that he took part in the successful British capture of Marcoing, for which he was awarded the Victoria Cross for his bravery.
Tandey later recounted the moment when, during the retreat of German forces, a wounded soldier appeared in his line of fire.
He recalled, "I took aim but couldn’t shoot a wounded man, so I let him go." The German soldier nodded in gratitude and vanished.
...That’s the man who nearly shot me...
While there is no conclusive evidence to confirm that Hitler was the soldier Tandey spared, there is a compelling link.
A photograph of Tandey carrying a wounded soldier from 1914 was later used in a painting by Italian artist Fortunino Matania.
When British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain visited Hitler in 1938, the Führer showed him a copy of this painting, remarking, "That’s the man who nearly shot me."
...his wartime experiences had shaped his ideology...
The authenticity of the encounter remains disputed, but it is clear that Hitler, who had been decorated for bravery during the war, retained a deep connection to the experience.
In 1941, after leading Germany into another devastating war, Hitler acknowledged that his wartime experiences had shaped his ideology:
"When I returned from the War, I brought back home with me my experiences at the front; out of them I built my National Socialist community."
Bulgaria signs an armistice with the Allies, 29th September 1918
On September 29, 1918, Bulgaria signed an armistice with the Allied powers, marking a significant turning point in the First World War.
The signing of the armistice was the culmination of a series of military defeats and political turmoil that led to Bulgaria’s withdrawal from the Central Powers alliance, which had included Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire.
By the summer of 1918, the military situation for Bulgaria had become increasingly dire. The Allies, particularly the Serbian, French, and British forces, had made substantial progress on the Macedonian front.
The Bulgarian army, exhausted and demoralized, was unable to withstand the combined pressure from the Allied forces.
...left the country in a vulnerable position...
The breakthrough by the Allies in the Battle of Dobro Pole in mid-September 1918, which saw Bulgarian forces decisively defeated, left the country in a vulnerable position.
Bulgarian troops were retreating rapidly, and there was widespread discontent among the population due to the economic strain caused by the war.
The Bulgarian government, realizing the inevitability of defeat, sought to negotiate a ceasefire with the Allies.
...terms of the armistice were harsh...
The armistice was signed at the village of Salonica (modern-day Thessaloniki) in Greece, where the headquarters of the Allied forces on the Macedonian front were located.
The terms of the armistice were harsh for Bulgaria, as they had to agree to the demobilization of their army, the occupation of strategic territories, and the surrender of military equipment to the Allies.
Additionally, Bulgaria was required to open its borders to allow the movement of Allied troops, effectively ending its participation in the war.
...signaled the collapse of Bulgaria’s role in the Balkan region...
The signing of the armistice with Bulgaria had significant consequences for the wider conflict.
It effectively removed one of the Central Powers from the war, allowing the Allies to focus their resources on the remaining Central Powers, particularly Germany.
It also signaled the collapse of Bulgaria’s role in the Balkan region and paved the way for the post-war reorganization of Southeast Europe.
The armistice also set the stage for the Treaty of Neuilly, signed in 1919, which imposed harsh peace terms on Bulgaria, including territorial losses and reparations, significantly reshaping the political landscape of the Balkans.
Conclusion
The events of September 1918 had profound and lasting consequences on political developments in the 1920s and 1930s, shaping the trajectory toward the Second World War.
The Red Terror and the rise of the Revolutionary Military Council solidified Bolshevik control in Soviet Russia, paving the way for the establishment of a totalitarian regime under Lenin and later Stalin.
This centralization of power and the creation of a repressive state apparatus would inspire similar movements across Europe, contributing to the rise of fascism and the eventual outbreak of the Second World War.
...marked the disintegration of the Central Powers...
The collapse of Bulgaria and the signing of the armistice also marked the disintegration of the Central Powers and led to territorial and political shifts in the Balkans.
The harsh terms of the Treaty of Neuilly, combined with political instability, contributed to rising nationalism and resentment, particularly in Bulgaria.
This discontent fueled the rise of authoritarian leaders, such as King Boris III, and created an environment ripe for the influence of Nazi Germany.
...laying the groundwork for future territorial disputes and tensions...
The massacre in Baku and the weakening of empires in the Middle East further contributed to regional instability, with interethnic conflict and the fragmentation of Ottoman territories laying the groundwork for future territorial disputes and tensions.
Meanwhile, the impact of the First World War, exemplified by the Battle of Saint-Mihiel and the Vardar Offensive, demonstrated the military shifts in the balance of power and the importance of new technologies and tactics, all of which would shape the strategy and alliances of the Second World War.
Together, these events set the stage for the political and military tensions that would erupt in the 1930s and lead to global conflict.
