Hitler's Northern Stronghold
The German occupation of Norway during the Second World War stands as a significant episode in both Scandinavian and European wartime history.
Though initially determined to remain neutral, Norway's strategic importance in the conflict became apparent to both the Axis and Allied powers.
On the 9th April 1940, Germany launched Operation Weserübung, an unexpected assault that quickly overwhelmed Norwegian defenses.
This invasion not only ensured German control over the Norwegian coastline but also safeguarded crucial supply routes for the transportation of Swedish iron ore, vital to the Nazi war machine.
German officers in front of the National Theatre in Norwegian capital, Oslo, 1940
Bundesarchiv, Bild 101I-759-0139N-28A / Ruge, Willi / CC-BY-SA 3.0
Calm before the storm: a winter night in the Norwegian capital, Oslo, in 1938. Two years later, Norway would face occupation at the hands of Nazi Germany.
...harsh military rule, economic exploitation, and widespread repression...
The occupation, which lasted until May 1945, profoundly impacted Norway’s political, social, and economic landscape.
During this period, the country endured harsh military rule, economic exploitation, and widespread repression, while at the same time fostering one of the most effective resistance movements in occupied Europe.
The events that unfolded during these five years left deep scars on Norwegian society but also played a critical role in forging its post-war national identity.
Troops of the Wehrmacht, the military forces of Nazi Germany, in Oslo, Norway on April 9, 1940, the first day of the German invasion and occupation of Norway in World War II. The soldiers are equipped with greatcoats, steel helmets, studded jack boots, Karabiner 98k rifles and field gear. They are marching down the Karl Johans gate Street while civilians have gathered on the pavements as spectactors of the show. Unarmed Norwegian police in dark overcoats and British brodie helmets help maintain law and order. In the background are the Royal palace, the buildings of University of Oslo, etc.
...a focal point in the broader conflict...
This article delves into the complex history of Norway’s occupation, examining the strategic motivations behind the invasion, the establishment of German control, the day-to-day realities for the Norwegian populace, and the organized resistance efforts that ultimately contributed to the nation’s liberation.
By exploring these elements in detail, we gain a deeper understanding of how this small, neutral nation became a focal point in the broader conflict of the Second World War.
The sections that follow will chronologically and thematically analyze the prelude to the invasion, the military occupation, resistance efforts, and the long-term consequences of German control on Norway.
Through this examination, we aim to highlight the resilience of the Norwegian people and the enduring legacy of this period in shaping modern Norway.
A 1939 map showing Norway and its neighbours, Sweden and Finland. Just a year later it would find itself under the cosh of Nazi rule.
Norway’s Strategic Importance
The German occupation of Norway was not an arbitrary decision; it was driven by Norway’s considerable strategic value within the context of the conflict.
Both the Axis and Allied powers recognized the critical advantages that control over Norway would provide, making it a focal point of contention early in the war.
To understand why Germany chose to invade Norway in 1940, it is essential to explore the nation's geopolitical significance and the political climate leading up to the invasion.
General Paul Nikolaus von Falkenhorst, planned and commanded the German invasion of Denmark and Norway in 1940.
Adolf Hitler observes the scenery while on board the Deutschland in the Norwegian fjords, April 1934. Hitler viewed Norway as strategically significant for its North Atlantic access and resources, including iron ore routes. He admired Norway's Viking heritage, associating it with Aryan ideals, and sought to incorporate the country into his vision of a Greater Germanic Reich.
Credit: Adolf Hitler: Bilder aus dem Leben des Führers. Altona/Bahrenfeld: Cigaretten-Bilderdienst, 1936
...a perfect base for naval and submarine operations...
A Norwegian tourism poster from the 1930's highlighting its impressive mountains and fjords - features which were appealing to German military planners.
Norway’s extensive coastline, stretching over 2,500 kilometres, was of immense strategic importance during the Second World War.
The country's western coast, with its deep fjords and access to the North Atlantic, offered a perfect base for naval and submarine operations.
German naval forces, particularly the Kriegsmarine, were eager to utilize these coastal waters to launch attacks on Allied shipping routes and to disrupt the supply lines vital to the United Kingdom.
Control over Norwegian ports would allow Germany to extend its reach into the Atlantic and protect its maritime routes from potential Allied blockades.
Hammerfest, Norway during the 1930's. Norwegian ports were central to German invasion planning due to their strategic importance for securing vital shipping routes and safeguarding iron ore shipments from Sweden. Ports like Narvik and Bergen provided naval bases for controlling the North Atlantic, supporting U-boat operations, and establishing supply lines crucial to sustaining German war efforts.
http://transpressnz.blogspot.com/2015/01/hammerfest-port-norway-circa-1930.html
...ensured the uninterrupted flow of iron ore to Germany...
Furthermore, Norway was crucial for securing the supply of iron ore, an essential raw material for the German war machine.
Although the iron ore was mined in neutral Sweden, it was shipped through the ice-free Norwegian port of Narvik, especially during the winter months when the Baltic Sea ports were frozen.
Controlling Norway ensured the uninterrupted flow of iron ore to Germany, a critical factor in sustaining its armament production.
For the Allies, particularly Britain, preventing this flow was a strategic necessity to weaken Germany’s military capabilities.
Germanys Iron Ore Consumption: From this graph it is clear how important imports from Sweden were, with iron ore from Norway's neighbour ultimately contributing a sizable amount of Germanys total consumption. The iron ore, which would be shipped through Norwegian ports like Narvik, was critical to Nazi Germany’s war industry. Norway's strategic location would ensure secure supply routes, making it essential for sustaining German military production.
https://forum.paradoxplaza.com/forum/threads/swedish-iron-ore.1406964/
...essential for producing fighter planes, which were critical to German air superiority...
Norwegian aluminum also played a vital role in the Nazi war effort due to its importance in manufacturing aircraft, weapons, and military equipment.
Aluminum’s lightweight and durable properties made it essential for producing fighter planes, which were critical to German air superiority.
Norway’s abundant hydroelectric power allowed for efficient production, making its aluminum industry a key target during the German occupation. Factories such as those in Årdal and Herøya became strategic assets, ensuring a steady supply of this crucial metal.
By controlling Norwegian aluminum production, the Nazis bolstered their military capabilities, highlighting the strategic significance of Norway’s resources.
Aluminum was a vital resource for aircraft production and access to Norwegian production facilities would be one of the key reasons for the German invasion of Norway. Its hydroelectric-powered aluminum industry would boost Germany's military production and overall operational success.. Furthermore, Germans needed aluminium and Norwegian enterprises would want to make money, meaning that Industrial interests would choose to collaborate with the occupying forces in building new factories for manufacturing the light metal, such as this one in Glomfjord, Nordland County.
(Photo: Nordag-bilder, National Library of Norway)
...in the face of escalating tensions in Europe...
Despite its strategic importance, Norway sought to maintain its neutrality in the face of escalating tensions in Europe.
Historically, Norway had remained neutral during the First World War, a stance that had preserved its independence and spared it from the devastation experienced by many European countries.
As the next World War loomed, the Norwegian government was determined to repeat this strategy, believing that a strong declaration of neutrality would protect the nation from becoming embroiled in another global conflict.
Norwegian soldiers on guard duty during the First World War. During the Great War, Norway maintained neutrality, avoiding direct involvement while trading with both Allied and Central Powers. However, its merchant fleet faced significant risks, with many ships sunk by German U-boats. Norway’s neutrality was economically challenging, balancing trade demands and political pressures while striving to protect its sovereignty and resources.
...undermined by its limited military preparedness...
However, Norway’s commitment to neutrality was undermined by its limited military preparedness.
The country had maintained a relatively small and underfunded military force throughout the interwar years, under the assumption that its non-aligned status would protect it from foreign aggression.
As a result, by 1940, Norway was ill-prepared to defend itself against a well-coordinated invasion by a modern, mechanized army like that of Nazi Germany.
Norway worked hard to stay neutral in the Second World War. Here are members of the so called 'Neutrality protection' in Oslo, 1939. Norway aimed to stay neutral in the Second World War to protect its sovereignty and avoid conflict, as in the First World War. Its strategic location and resources, like iron ore, made neutrality difficult. Norway declared itself neutral, restricted military preparations, and traded cautiously, but Germany’s invasion in 1940 shattered these efforts.
...delayed by indecision and diplomatic concerns...
Despite its hopes for neutrality, Norway found itself increasingly caught in the crossfire between the Allies and the Axis powers.
The British were aware of the strategic importance of Norway and had considered plans to preemptively occupy Norwegian ports to cut off Germany's access to Swedish iron ore.
However, these plans were delayed by indecision and diplomatic concerns, allowing Germany to act first.
Winston Churchill (left) and Neville Chamberlin (right). In 1940, Norway became a focal point for British leadership during its invasion by Germany. Winston Churchill, then First Lord of the Admiralty, championed military intervention, including the ill-fated Norwegian Campaign to challenge German control. Neville Chamberlain, as Prime Minister, faced criticism for Britain's failure to defend Norway effectively. The campaign's collapse undermined Chamberlain’s leadership, leading to his resignation in May 1940 and Churchill’s rise to Prime Minister, marking a pivotal moment in Britain’s wartime strategy.
https://winstonchurchill.org/publications/finest-hour/finest-hour-188/a-difference-between-natures/
...accelerate plans for an invasion...
By early 1940, Germany, under Adolf Hitler’s direction, had become increasingly concerned about potential Allied moves in Scandinavia.
Reports of British interest in Norwegian waters prompted Hitler to accelerate plans for an invasion.
Operation Weserübung, the code name for Germany’s assault on Norway (and Denmark), was developed to pre-empt any Allied intervention and secure control over the region before Britain could take action.
''I've Come to Protect You From the Cruel British'' - cartoon which appeared in the Canadian newspaper The Gazette by artist: John Collins, commenting on the German invasion of Norway, April 1940. Hitler portrayed Germany's invasion of Norway as a defensive measure to protect it from Allied aggression. Nazi propaganda claimed the Allies planned to violate Norwegian neutrality, justifying Germany’s preemptive action. This narrative sought to mask Nazi ambitions, including securing strategic ports and resources, while undermining Norwegian sovereignty and independence.
...vital for sustaining Germany's military-industrial complex...
The German landing sites for Operation Weserübung. German forces selected these locations to secure ports and strategic locations.
The invasion plan was driven by multiple objectives.
Firstly, it aimed to protect the iron ore shipments from Sweden, which were vital for sustaining Germany's military-industrial complex.
Secondly, it sought to establish a series of bases along Norway’s coast to bolster the Kriegsmarine’s operations against the Allies, thereby strengthening Germany's strategic position in the North Atlantic.
Operation Weserübung was unique in that it combined elements of naval, airborne, and ground assaults, demonstrating the versatility and speed of Germany’s Blitzkrieg tactics.
By launching a surprise invasion of Norway on the 9th April 1940, Germany was able to quickly secure key cities, ports, and airfields, effectively outmaneuvering both the Norwegian defenders and the hesitant Allied forces.
...marked by indecision and delays...
Although the Allies, particularly the British, recognized the strategic importance of Norway, their response was marked by indecision and delays.
Early in the war, Winston Churchill, then First Lord of the Admiralty, had advocated for mining Norwegian waters to prevent Germany from using them for transporting iron ore.
However, concerns over violating Norwegian neutrality and reluctance from other Allied leaders delayed these efforts until it was too late.
HMS Apollo laying mines off Norway. In April 1940, Britain mined Norwegian waters to disrupt German access to Swedish iron ore shipments via Norway’s ports. Codenamed Operation Wilfred, the mining aimed to force German ships into open seas, exposing them to Allied attacks. However, this act provoked German retaliation, accelerating their invasion of Norway.
...hampered by diplomatic hesitations...
The British and French governments had also discussed plans to land troops in Norway to forestall a German invasion, but these plans were hampered by diplomatic hesitations and logistical challenges.
As a result, when Germany launched Operation Weserübung, the Allies were caught off guard and unable to respond effectively in time to prevent the German forces from rapidly establishing control.
Norway’s strategic position in Europe, combined with its valuable resources, made it a critical target for Germany’s expansionist ambitions during the Second World War.
Commandos watching fish oil tanks burning during Operation Claymore in 1941, a raid on the Lofoten Islands in Norway, which were an important centre for the production of fish oil and glycerine, used in the German war economy. Norway's fish factories were crucial to German invasion planning, and control of these factories bolstered Germany’s war effort, making Norway's fishing industry strategically significant during the Second World War.
...a swift and successful invasion...
The failure of the Allies to act decisively allowed Germany to carry out a swift and successful invasion, marking the beginning of a challenging period of occupation for the Norwegian people.
Understanding the geopolitical and political factors leading up to the invasion provides crucial context for examining the impact of the subsequent five-year occupation on Norway’s society and its lasting legacy in the country’s history.
General Admiral Alfred Saalwächter was put in tactical command of Operation Weserübung.
German heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper embarking troops for the invasion of Norway, 6th April 1940
https://www.reddit.com/r/wwiipics/comments/1djfo97/german_heavy_cruiser_admiral_hipper_embarking/
Operation Weserübung
The German invasion of Norway, codenamed Operation Weserübung, was a meticulously planned military campaign designed to secure Norway's strategic resources and coastline.
It was launched on the 9th April 1940, as part of Nazi Germany’s broader effort to consolidate control over Northern Europe, ensuring access to critical resources and naval positions that would prove essential to the German war effort.
This marked the first time Germany employed its Blitzkrieg tactics in a maritime setting. Unlike traditional land invasions, this operation involved a complex combination of naval, airborne, and ground forces to overwhelm the Norwegian defenses swiftly.
Early in the morning of the 9th April German forces simultaneously struck key Norwegian cities, including Oslo, Bergen, Trondheim, Stavanger, and Narvik, with both naval landings and airborne assaults.
Operation Weserübung - the German invasion of Denmark and Norway, launched on the 9th April 1940, was a swift military operation. Denmark surrendered within hours, while Norway resisted for two months. The invasions secured strategic ports and airbases, aiding Germany's control over the North Sea.
https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/gallery/norway-maps
...an imminent German invasion...
The German Navy (Kriegsmarine) played a central role, deploying warships to capture major ports, while airborne troops (Fallschirmjäger) were dropped behind enemy lines to secure critical airfields and infrastructure.
The surprise and speed of the attack left the Norwegian military largely unprepared, despite intelligence reports suggesting an imminent German invasion.
Norwegian forces, under-equipped and outnumbered, struggled to mount an effective defense against the highly coordinated German assault.
During Operation Weserübung, mountain troops were extensively deployed. Operation Weserübung was geographically extensive, targeting both Denmark and Norway simultaneously. It involved coordinated land, sea, and air assaults across a vast area, from the southern Danish border to Norway's northern ports, ensuring rapid control over key cities, airfields, and coastal regions.
Bundesarchiv.
https://www.tracesofwar.nl/articles/911/Duitse-Troepen-voor-Weser%C3%BCbung.htm
...paralyze the country’s ability to organize a coordinated defense...
The German invasion strategy prioritized the rapid capture of Norway’s key cities to paralyze the country’s ability to organize a coordinated defense.
In Oslo, Germany aimed to capture the Norwegian king and government to force a quick surrender.
Although the German cruiser Blücher, carrying troops for the capital's assault, was sunk in the Oslofjord by Norwegian coastal defenses, this only temporarily delayed the Germans.
By the end of the day, Oslo had fallen, with German paratroopers securing the city and key military installations.
Fires rage after a German bombardment on Elverum, Norway on the night of 11-12 April 1940, during Operation Weserübung. German military operations during Operation Weserübung brought widespread disruption to Norwegian life. The invasion caused civilian casualties, displacement, and economic instability. Rapid German occupation eroded national sovereignty, prompting resistance efforts while fostering fear, uncertainty, and hardship throughout the Norwegian population during the Second World War's early phase.
Photo collection: Norway National Archives/ War Archives
https://www.annefrank.org/en/timeline/61/germany-invades-denmark-and-norway/
...a particularly valuable target...
In the north, the port city of Narvik was a particularly valuable target due to its role in shipping Swedish iron ore, critical for the German war machine.
Despite fierce resistance from Norwegian forces and their subsequent support from British troops, the Germans managed to hold Narvik.
However, the fighting in Narvik was among the fiercest of the Norwegian campaign, highlighting the strategic importance both sides placed on controlling this region.
Downtown Narvik, Norway after fierce fighting between Allied (British, French, Norwegian and Polish) and German forces in spring 1940. In 1940, Narvik was a key battleground during the Norwegian Campaign due to its strategic iron ore supply. Allied forces temporarily recaptured it in May, achieving their first infantry victory, but later withdrew amid worsening conditions in France.
https://www.reddit.com/r/wwiipics/comments/106dayj/downtown_narvik_norway_after_fierce_fighting/
...caught off guard...
The invasion of Norway shocked the Allies, who were caught off guard despite prior discussions about intervening in Norway themselves.
In response, Britain and France hastily organized an expeditionary force to counter the German occupation, particularly focusing on the recapture of Narvik.
British forces, supported by Norwegian troops, managed to retake the city temporarily in early May.
However, the German counteroffensive, combined with the rapid deterioration of the military situation in France, forced the Allies to withdraw their forces by early June.
During a lull in the fighting against the Germans at Konigsvinter, northeast of Oslo, Norwegian soldiers enjoy the momentary respite. These troops fought valiantly against a German attack there on the 28th April.
https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/scandinavian-airborne-assault/
Troops of the Wehrmacht, the military forces of Nazi Germany, in Oslo, Norway in 1940, during the German invasion and occupation of Norway. The soldiers are equipped with steel helmets, Karabiner 98k rifles, etc., ready for transport on open truck beds, from the Akershusstranda harbour area by the Akershus fortress. A crane can be seen in the background as Norwegian civilian spectators pass by.
...exposed weaknesses...
The evacuation of Allied forces from Norway was a significant setback, but it was not without its silver linings.
The campaign exposed weaknesses in German coordination between its military branches, particularly the lack of cooperation between the Luftwaffe (air force) and the Kriegsmarine (navy).
Moreover, the successful but brief Allied occupation of Narvik demonstrated that Germany’s control over Norway was not unassailable.
German soldiers march toward their assigned positions after landing at the military airport of Stavanger., 15th April 1940. German soldiers during the invasion of Norway executed a swift and coordinated campaign, combining naval, air, and ground forces. Facing resistance from Norwegian and Allied troops, they secured key ports, cities, and strategic locations, solidifying occupation.
https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/scandinavian-airborne-assault/
...fled to Britain to continue the struggle in exile...
Despite some tactical victories by Norwegian and Allied forces, the Germans quickly secured their hold over Norway.
By early June 1940, the Norwegian government, led by King Haakon VII, fled to Britain to continue the struggle in exile.
The decision to resist rather than surrender had far-reaching implications, symbolizing Norway’s determination to fight against German occupation and laying the groundwork for organized resistance movements within the country.
Following the initial invasion, German forces focused on consolidating control over Norway’s key military and economic assets.
Coastal defences were fortified to prevent any future Allied attempts to reclaim Norwegian territory.
The establishment of German military bases along the coast and the construction of fortifications were part of Hitler’s larger strategy to create a "fortress Europe" that would be impervious to Allied attacks.
King Hakon VII of Norway (1872 - 1957) who, after escaping death or capture at the hands of the invading Germans in 1940, safely reached the UK with his family and government. The King's official residence was the Norwegian Legation at 10 Palace Green, Kensington, which became the seat of the Norwegian government in exile.
German tanks disembark at the port of Oslo, Norway April 1940. German forces used Norwegian ports like Narvik, Bergen, and Trondheim during the invasion to secure supply lines, deploy troops, and establish naval bases, ensuring strategic control of the North Atlantic.
Interestingly, the tanks pictured are the German Panzerkampfwagen Neubaufahrzeug ("new construction vehicle"), abbreviated as PzKpfw Nb.Fz, a prototype tank developed as an early attempt to create a medium tank for the Wehrmacht after Adolf Hitler’s rise to power. Multi-turreted, heavy, and slow, the design proved unsuccessful, resulting in only five being produced. These tanks were primarily used for propaganda and training, with three deployed during the Battle of Norway in 1940. Photographs of the Neubaufahrzeuge were staged with varying turret models and orientations to mislead Allied intelligence. Both American and Soviet agents mistakenly identified them as new heavy tanks, the Panzer V and VI, though they bore no relation to the later Panzer V Panther and Panzer VI Tiger.
Badische Presse
...securing access to vital shipping routes...
A hurt child at the hospital in Namsos after German bombardment of the city.
PA-1209, NTBs krigsarkiv, Ue, L0099, Livet i Norge under okkupasjonen.
https://www.arkivverket.no/en/using-the-archives/world-war-ii/everyday-life#!#block-body-3
The German occupation of Norway was a strategic success for the Nazis, securing access to vital shipping routes and resources while preventing the Allies from establishing a foothold in Scandinavia.
However, it also marked the beginning of a harsh five-year occupation that would see significant resistance from the Norwegian population.
The invasion demonstrated the effectiveness of Germany’s combined arms approach but also exposed vulnerabilities that the Allies would later exploit in other theaters of war.
Men of the 4th Lincolnshire Regiment at Skagge after marching 56 miles across the mountains to escape being cut off by the enemy, April 1940. A Norwegian soldier is seen examining one of their rifles. During the Norwegian Campaign, the British Army aimed to counter Germany’s invasion of Norway. Despite initial successes, logistical challenges, poor coordination, and strong German resistance led to failure. The campaign exposed weaknesses in British planning and marked a critical turning point, contributing to Neville Chamberlain's resignation as Prime Minister.
https://ro.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:The_British_Army_in_Norway_April_-_June_1940_N82.jpg
...a pivotal moment in Norway's wartime history...
In summary, Operation Weserübung was not only a pivotal moment in Norway’s wartime history but also a crucial chapter in the early stages of the Second World War.
It set the stage for a prolonged conflict in Scandinavia, drawing Norway into the broader European struggle against Nazi tyranny.
The consequences of the invasion would reverberate throughout the rest of the war, shaping the course of both Norwegian resistance efforts and the wider Allied strategy in Europe.
''Protecting« Scandinavia - Nazi Style!'' - American cartoon which appeared in The Miami Herald, by artist: Walter J. Enright, commenting on the German invasion of Denmark and Norway, 10th April 1940. The German invasion of Denmark and Norway in April 1940 shocked the international community, highlighting Nazi aggression. The Allies condemned the violation of neutrality and launched the Norwegian Campaign to resist German advances. Neutral nations expressed concern, while Axis powers praised the strategic move, intensifying global tensions during the Second World War.
The Establishment of German Occupation
Following the swift and decisive German invasion of Norway in April 1940, Nazi forces quickly moved to consolidate their control over the newly occupied territory.
Over the course of the next five years, the occupation fundamentally altered Norway’s political landscape, social fabric, and economy.
Despite Germany’s strategic victory, the occupation was met with significant resistance from the Norwegian populace, leading to a prolonged and tense period of German control.
The occupation was characterized by the imposition of a puppet government, strict military oversight, and an attempt to transform Norwegian society to align with Nazi ideology.
A swastika flies in the Norwegian capital Oslo following the Nazi takeover. In the first weeks of German occupation, Oslo residents faced shock, fear, and uncertainty. Daily life adjusted rapidly to military rule, with censorship and curfews imposed. Many sought safety, while resistance began quietly through underground networks, fostering resilience and solidarity.
...the establishment of a collaborationist government...
One of the most infamous aspects of the German occupation was the establishment of a collaborationist government under the leadership of Vidkun Quisling.
On the day of the invasion, Quisling, a former defence minister and leader of the fascist Nasjonal Samling (National Unity) party, declared himself the head of a new Norwegian government.
However, his initial attempt to seize power was poorly received, both by the Norwegian people and by the German authorities, who viewed him as a convenient but unreliable figure.
Vidkun Quisling (in front of the center) at a party event in Borre National Park is under a portal that promotes Germanske SS Norge (A Norwegian Pro-Nazi paramilitary group). Quisling was a Norwegian politician who collaborated with Nazi Germany during the Second World War. As the leader of the puppet government in Norway, he actively supported German occupation policies. His name became synonymous with treason and betrayal.
...a staunch Nazi loyalist...
Instead of immediately installing Quisling as the ruler, Germany opted for a more cautious approach.
They appointed Reichskommissar Josef Terboven, a staunch Nazi loyalist, to oversee the administration of occupied Norway.
Terboven was given wide-ranging authority to govern the country, while Quisling was sidelined temporarily.
However, Quisling’s collaboration with the Nazis eventually paid off, and in 1942 he was formally installed as the Minister-President of Norway, heading a puppet government under German supervision.
Reichskommissar Josef Terboven
Vidkun Quisling meets Adolf Hitler in Berlin 1942. Vidkun Quisling, Norway’s wartime leader and Nazi collaborator, sought Adolf Hitler's support to establish a fascist state. While Hitler used Quisling to legitimize Germany’s occupation, he viewed him as a tool rather than an equal. Their relationship was marked by mutual exploitation, with Quisling ultimately becoming a puppet of Nazi Germany.
https://www.reddit.com/r/HistoryPorn/comments/rdyevo/norwegian_nazi_traitor_vidkun_quisling_meets/
...efforts to militarize the youth...
Recruitment poster for the SS Division Viking, a Nazi German Waffen-SS unit with multinational volunteers, including Scandinavians.
Quisling’s regime became synonymous with treason and collaboration.
He attempted to implement policies that aligned with Nazi ideology, including efforts to militarize the youth, suppress dissent, and deport Jews.
The regime made extensive use of propaganda to encourage Norwegians (and other Scandinavians) to align themselves with their fellow 'Nordic' Germans,
The term "quisling" has since become a byword for traitor in many languages.
Despite Quisling’s efforts, his government was deeply unpopular among Norwegians, who largely rejected his policies and continued to support the legitimate government-in-exile led by King Haakon VII.
High ranking Nazi's attending a performance at the National Theatre in Oslo, 14th February 1944. Quisling is seen in the middle of the picture in a black uniform. To his right is seen Reichskommissar Terboven and further to the right General Falkenhorst. To the left of Quisling is seen the Gestapo chief Wilhelm Rediess.
...he was notorious for his harsh methods...
Under the occupation, Norway was subjected to strict German military rule. Reichskommissar Terboven was relentless in his efforts to enforce German policies and maintain order.
He utilized both the Wehrmacht and the Gestapo to suppress any opposition, and he was notorious for his harsh methods, including mass arrests, executions, and the use of concentration camps for political prisoners.
One of Terboven’s main priorities was to secure Norway’s coastlines and strategic ports, which were vital for Germany’s war effort.
The country’s fjords and coastal areas became heavily fortified with bunkers, airfields, and naval bases to protect against potential Allied attacks.
These fortifications, part of Hitler’s "Atlantic Wall," were designed to turn Norway into an impregnable fortress that would secure German control over the North Atlantic.
German Concentration camps in occupied Norway and Denmark from 1940 until 1945. These camps imprisoned political dissidents, resistance fighters, and Jews. Harsh conditions, forced labor, and brutal treatment led to the suffering and deaths of many detainees.
https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/gallery/norway-maps
...sought to exploit Norway’s economy...
In addition to the military presence, the German authorities sought to exploit Norway’s economy for the war effort.
Norwegian industries, particularly shipping, fisheries, and raw materials like aluminum and nickel, were commandeered to support Germany’s needs.
The Germans imposed strict quotas and requisitioned food, fuel, and other resources, leading to shortages and hardship for the Norwegian population.
This photograph of German soldiers was taken in Grong in Trøndelag. The photographer is Franz-Josef Tintrop, who himself was a German soldier in Norway. At most there were likely more than 300,000 German soldiers in this country.
Tintrop, Franz-Josef
...widespread censorship, propaganda, and economic exploitation...
While the Germans initially sought to win over the Norwegian public with promises of protection and stability, these efforts were largely unsuccessful.
The harsh realities of the occupation, including widespread censorship, propaganda, and economic exploitation, quickly eroded any goodwill.
Moreover, Terboven’s brutal repression of dissent, particularly his targeting of the resistance movement, only served to galvanize opposition among the Norwegian people.
A German soldier stands guard in Norway during the occupation. Germany maintained a strong military presence in the country, even after the war had turned against them elsewhere.
German guards outside the Storting (Norwegian Parliament) in the first days of the German occupation in April 1940. The German occupation rendered the Norwegian Parliament powerless, as the Nazis dissolved democratic institutions and imposed authoritarian rule. Quisling’s puppet government replaced legitimate governance, while the Storting's activities ceased. Members faced arrest or exile, symbolizing the suppression of Norwegian sovereignty and democracy under Nazi control from 1940 to 1945.
...attempted to Nazify Norwegian society...
The occupation also had significant social implications.
The Germans attempted to Nazify Norwegian society, particularly through education and youth programs.
Schools were pressured to adopt Nazi curricula, and organizations like the Nasjonal Samling youth group were used to indoctrinate Norwegian children.
However, these efforts were largely resisted by teachers, parents, and the broader community, who refused to allow Nazi ideology to take root in Norway.
A "Christmas ship" (Weihnachtsschiff) with christmas gifts for German soldiers arrives in Oslo harbour before Christmas 1940. Josef Terboven, the Reichskommissar for Norway during the German occupation and the Quisling regime during the Second World War 1940–1945, hands over the cargo to Army General Nikolaus von Falkenhorst, commander of German troops in Norway from 1940 to 1944.
...began the deportation of Norwegian Jews...
The Jewish population in Norway faced severe persecution.
In 1942, the Nazis, with the assistance of Quisling’s government, began the deportation of Norwegian Jews to concentration camps, most notably Auschwitz.
Nearly 800 Norwegian Jews were arrested and deported, with very few survivors.
This atrocity remains one of the darkest chapters of the occupation, revealing the extent to which the collaborationist regime was willing to support Nazi policies.
The Donau, one of the largest ships used to deport Jews from Norway to Germany. From Germany, hundreds of Norwegian Jews were deported to Auschwitz. Norway, 1943.
...an ideal base for launching naval operations...
Germany’s strategic goals in Norway extended beyond immediate economic exploitation.
The country’s geographic position made it an ideal base for launching naval operations against Allied convoys in the North Atlantic.
To secure this advantage, the Germans embarked on extensive fortification projects along Norway’s rugged coast.
Thousands of forced laborers, many of them prisoners of war, were conscripted to build bunkers, airfields, and radar installations.
Fortress Fjell, near Bergen, (photographed here in 1963) was a key component of Festung Norwegen ("Fortress Norway"), Germany's extensive coastal defense system during the Second World War. Constructed to safeguard critical shipping routes, the fort featured a powerful triple-barreled turret repurposed from the battleship Gneisenau. Part of Nazi Germany’s strategy to fortify Norway against Allied invasions, Fortress Fjell stood as a testament to the occupation’s military priorities, playing a vital role in securing an ominous German presence over the North Atlantic.
...suppress any signs of rebellion...
The presence of German troops in Norway was substantial, with around 300,000 soldiers stationed there at the height of the occupation.
These forces were tasked not only with defending the coastline but also with quelling resistance activities.
The occupation forces established a network of checkpoints, patrols, and informants to monitor and suppress any signs of rebellion.
The German occupation of Norway was a period marked by severe repression, economic exploitation, and social control.
The policies of both Terboven and Quisling, though initially effective in securing German control, only deepened the resolve of the Norwegian population to resist.
As the war dragged on and Germany’s position weakened, the occupation forces found it increasingly difficult to maintain control over a population that remained largely united in its opposition to the occupiers.
This widespread resistance laid the foundation for Norway’s eventual liberation and the post-war trials of those who had collaborated with the Nazis.
Wilhelm Rediess 1941. Rediess (10 October 1900 – 8 May 1945) was the SS and Police Leader during the German occupation of Norway. He was also the commander of all SS troops stationed in occupied Norway, assuming command on 22 June 1940 until his death in 1945. A key enforcer of German rule, he oversaw brutal policies, including the persecution of Jews, forced labor, and repression of resistance.
Henriksen & Steen, National Library of Norway, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
Battleship Tirpitz anchored in the Kafjord, Norway in March 1943. The German battleship Tirpitz, stationed in Norwegian fjords, was a significant threat to Allied shipping, prompting relentless attacks by British forces. These operations, including daring air raids and midget submarine missions, reflected the Allies’ growing ability to project power deep into Nazi-controlled territory. Despite its formidable defenses, the eventual sinking of the Tirpitz in 1944 symbolized the shifting momentum of the war, as Germany's ability to dominate naval and strategic assets steadily diminished under Allied pressure.
Colorized by irootoko_ jr
https://www.reddit.com/r/WarshipPorn/comments/7wql1b/dkm_battleship_tirpitz_anchored_in_the_kafjord/
LIfe Under Occupation
The German occupation of Norway from 1940 to 1945 dramatically altered the social, cultural, and economic fabric of the nation.
For five years, the Norwegian people were subjected to harsh military rule, widespread repression, and economic exploitation.
Despite Nazi efforts to impose their ideology and control over every aspect of daily life, Norwegians found ways to resist, adapt, and preserve their national identity.
This section delves into what life was like for ordinary Norwegians under German rule, examining social dynamics, economic impacts, and the atmosphere of fear and resistance that permeated everyday life.
The occupation force had its own rationing regulations. The quotas were more generous and luxury goods were to some extent available. Seen here is a special cake card for the German Wehrmacht. Norwegian rations during the German occupation were limited, with shortages of meat, fats, and coffee, leading to reliance on substitutes like fish and potatoes. In contrast, German forces stationed in Norway received more substantial and prioritized rations, exacerbating local scarcity.
(S-1317 Forsyningsdepartementet, 1. Rasjoneringskontor/Rasjoneringskontoret D/L547)
https://www.arkivverket.no/en/using-the-archives/world-war-ii/everyday-life#!#block-body-1
...reshape its society and culture to align with Nazi ideals...
The German occupation sought not only to control Norway militarily but also to reshape its society and culture to align with Nazi ideals.
The occupiers, led by Reichskommissar Josef Terboven and supported by the collaborationist Quisling government, tried to impose a new social order on the Norwegian people.
This effort included propaganda campaigns, censorship, and attempts to control education and the media.
In autumn 1944, a chilling notice hung on the barbed wire fence surrounding a German military facility in the Oslo area, starkly illustrating the oppressive reality of the occupation. The sign warned that unauthorized individuals trespassing in the area would be shot without hesitation. This blunt threat served as a grim reminder of the constant fear and control imposed by the occupiers, as everyday life in Norway was overshadowed by violence and the ever-present danger of reprisal.
...to spread Nazi propaganda...
The German authorities quickly took over Norway’s media outlets, including newspapers, radio, and publishing houses, to spread Nazi propaganda. Independent newspapers were either shut down or forced to publish pro-German content.
Radio broadcasts were heavily censored, with only German-approved content permitted on air.
However, many Norwegians defied these restrictions by secretly listening to BBC broadcasts, which provided uncensored news and became a vital source of information about the progress of the war.
Fritt Folk, propaganda newspaper of fascist party Nasjonal Samling (NS), dated 10th September 1941, with "Forføyning" about State of emergency in Oslo signed by Josef Terboven and Wilhelm Rediess. Fritt Folk was published under Vidkun Quisling's regime, it promoted pro-German ideology, disseminated anti-Allied rhetoric, and glorified Nazi policies. Fritt Folk sought to undermine Norwegian resistance and legitimize the German occupation through manipulated news and propaganda.
From exhibition in Norway's Resistance Museum (Norges Hjemmefrontmuseum) in Oslo.
...to indoctrinate Norwegian youth into Nazi ideology...
A 1944 German notice stating: “Forbidden to stand as long as seats are available.” The occupying forces sought to interfere with or control much of the Norwegians daily lives.
Schools were pressured to incorporate Nazi ideology into their curricula, particularly focusing on subjects like history and race theory.
The Germans and the collaborationist government attempted to introduce programs to indoctrinate Norwegian youth into Nazi ideology through organizations like the Nasjonal Samling (NS) youth wing.
However, these efforts were largely unsuccessful due to resistance from teachers, parents, and students. Teachers who refused to cooperate faced dismissal, imprisonment, or deportation to labor camps.
The widespread rejection of these measures was a testament to the strong national identity and spirit of resistance among the Norwegian people.
Reserve battalion Holmestrand of The Norwegian Legion at the Royal Palace, Oslo, Norway 1942. The Norwegian Legion was a volunteer unit formed in 1941 by pro-Nazi Norwegians to fight alongside German forces on the Eastern Front. Primarily composed of members of the Nasjonal Samling party, it aimed to support Germany against the Soviet Union. The occupation of Norway presented the Germans with the ideal opportunity to recruit into its ranks.
...maintaining morale and cultural independence...
Norwegian artists, writers, and intellectuals played a key role in maintaining morale and cultural independence.
Many engaged in subtle acts of defiance, using their work to inspire resistance and national unity.
For instance, writers would embed anti-Nazi messages in their stories, while musicians performed traditional Norwegian music that celebrated the country’s heritage.
Public gatherings, although restricted, often became quiet acts of resistance, with people using symbols like paperclips and patriotic colours to signal their opposition to the occupiers.
A woodcut by artist Albert Jaern, who was living in Oslo and survived the five year occupation. His book And Then Came the Liberators, contains 102 woodcuts depicting Jaern’s everyday experiences during this period. The example above refers to incident when he witnessed Germans confiscating Norwegian automobiles for their own use.
https://coppice-gate.com/norway-ww2/386/an-artists-impression-of-nazi-occupied-norway
On 17th February (exact year unknown but during the German occupation) a powerful demonstration took place across Norway in memory of the Norwegians executed by the Germans. After 6 p.m., streets in most towns, including Oslo, were eerily deserted. Restaurants stood nearly empty, as did theaters and cinemas. The National Theatre in Oslo saw only seven attendees, while the city’s busiest bus route carried just 108 passengers compared to its usual 20,000. It wasn't until the next morning though, that the reasons became clear. Overnight, courageous Norwegians had painted black crosses on building walls and structures across the capital as a silent act of resistance.
...its valuable natural resources and industries...
One of Germany’s primary motivations for occupying Norway was to secure its valuable natural resources and industries, which were crucial to the Nazi war effort.
The economic exploitation of Norway was systematic, focusing on extracting raw materials, utilizing the country’s shipping industry, and requisitioning goods for German use.
Norway’s industries, particularly its shipping fleet, aluminum production, and fisheries, were commandeered to support Germany's war machine.
Norwegian factories were repurposed to produce goods for the German military, and German companies took control of critical industrial assets.
The occupation authorities imposed strict quotas on Norwegian industries, forcing them to prioritize production for the Reich. This led to widespread shortages of essential goods, affecting both businesses and consumers.
The supply of firewood for the Norwegian civilian population during the German occupation was a pressing issue. Stipulated allocations were minimal, often forcing individuals to cut wood themselves in designated forest areas to obtain any supply. German requisitions and transport difficulties left civilians with scarce resources, enduring freezing temperatures for many cold days and nights before receiving permission to light fires. Meanwhile, German occupiers enjoyed warm stolen villas with ovens fueled by coke. This photo captures Youngstorget in Oslo, bustling with activity related to the wood supply. The seemingly large quantities of wood are likely due to the proximity of significant locations, such as the Gestapo offices at Møllergaten 19 and the headquarters of Quisling's propaganda organ Fritt Folk on opposite sides of the square. Photo dated 18th October 1944.
...systematically requisitioned food, fuel, and raw materials...
The German authorities systematically requisitioned food, fuel, and raw materials, leading to widespread shortages and hardship for the Norwegian population.
Food rationing became a daily reality, with many Norwegians struggling to access basic necessities.
The occupiers prioritized their own troops and the war effort, leaving ordinary Norwegians to face hunger and scarcity.
Farmers were forced to supply their produce to the Germans, and the fishing industry, a lifeline for many coastal communities, was heavily regulated to divert resources to the occupiers.
During the German occupation, Norway’s fishing fleet became a valuable resource for the Germans after the occupation in 1940. The fleet provided a steady supply of fish, crucial for feeding German troops and supporting the war effort. Additionally, the fishing boats were repurposed for transport, patrols, and surveillance along Norway’s extensive coastline. Despite this, many Norwegian fishermen covertly aided the resistance, using their vessels to smuggle refugees, supplies, and intelligence, undermining German control wherever possible.
...political prisoners, were conscripted to work...
The Germans also relied on forced labor to support their occupation efforts, using both Norwegian and foreign prisoners of war. Thousands of Norwegians, including political prisoners, were conscripted to work on infrastructure projects, such as building fortifications, airfields, and roads.
This forced labor was not only grueling but also dangerous, with many workers subjected to harsh conditions, inadequate food, and the constant threat of punishment for perceived disobedience.
The relationship between the occupying German forces and the Norwegian population was tense and complex. While some Norwegians collaborated with the occupiers, the majority harbored resentment and distrust towards the Germans.
These strained relations influenced daily interactions and contributed to the atmosphere of fear and resistance.
On 15th March 1942, over 1,300 Norwegian teachers were arrested by Vidkun Quisling's Nazi-installed government after 12,000 of Norway’s 14,000 teachers refused to join the Nazi-oriented teachers’ association or implement Nazi propaganda in the curriculum. Half were detained in a concentration camp near Oslo, while the others were sent to the Arctic for forced labor, working alongside Russian prisoners of war.
https://www.zinnedproject.org/news/tdih/norwegian-teachers-resistance/
...collaborated openly with the Germans...
The Quisling government, led by Vidkun Quisling, collaborated openly with the Germans, but it had little popular support.
While a minority of Norwegians, particularly members of the Nasjonal Samling party, chose to collaborate for ideological or economic reasons, most Norwegians opposed the occupation.
Collaborationists were often ostracized by their communities and faced retribution after the war ended.
A Nasjonal Samling recruitment poster, 1935.
https://www.nasjonalmuseet.no/en/collection/object/NMK.2006.0002
This German photograph taken in Norway appeared in American newspapers. It was captioned, "Getting acquainted with the invaders: These Norwegian boys in Nazi-held Trondeim," the German-censored caption on this picture says, "lost their fear of green-grey troops and got acquainted with German soldiers. A soldier explains the mechanism of a light machinegun and one boy (bespectacled) reaches out to touch the death-dealer."
A scene like this was not possible in Poland or the Soviet Union due to Nazi hostility towards those they felt inferior to them. However, the Germans believed that countries like Norway with Aryan populations could be brought around to becoming German allies. The Nazis saw the Norwegians as valuable Aryan blood stock.
Picture by Clipper mail 2nd May 2, 1940.
...marked by mutual suspicion...
Social interactions between Norwegians and German soldiers were generally limited and marked by mutual suspicion.
Although the Germans attempted to cultivate friendly relations by offering higher wages and rationed goods, most Norwegians remained wary of associating with the occupiers.
However, some relationships did form, particularly between German soldiers and Norwegian women, leading to the birth of approximately 12,000 “war children.”
These children - many of them Lebensborn - and their mothers often faced social stigma during and after the war.
Front cover of a brochure advertising the Lebensborn program. The brochure describes the program's maternity homes and requirements that expectant mothers must meet to be accepted. The Lebensborn program, established by Heinrich Himmler in 1935, aimed to promote Nazi racial ideology by increasing the Aryan population. In occupied countries like Norway, it provided maternity homes for women bearing children fathered by German soldiers. The program fostered propaganda-driven relationships, leaving a controversial legacy of exploitation and trauma.
https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/lebensborn-program
...surveillance, intimidation, and brutal repression...
The German authorities maintained control over Norway through a combination of surveillance, intimidation, and brutal repression.
The Gestapo and the Norwegian police, under the control of the collaborationist government, were instrumental in rooting out dissent and punishing those who opposed the occupation.
Resistance activities, such as sabotage, espionage, and the distribution of underground newspapers, were met with harsh retaliation.
The Gestapo arrested thousands of suspected resistance members, who were often subjected to torture and harsh interrogations.
Many were executed or sent to concentration camps, where survival was rare. One of the most notorious camps was Grini, located near Oslo, where political prisoners endured forced labor, starvation, and brutality.
The entrance to the Gestapo headquarters on Victoria Terrace, Oslo, which was the former Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The Gestapo in Norway, Nazi Germany's secret police, targeted resistance groups, enforced occupation policies, and conducted brutal interrogations. They operated with fear and violence, undermining Norwegian resistance efforts during the Second World War.
Norwegian political prisoners at Grini concentration camp. Grini concentration camp, near Oslo, was Norway's largest Nazi prison during the Second World War, holding around 20,000 prisoners from 1941 to 1945. It detained resistance fighters, political prisoners, and civilians. Despite harsh conditions, inmates organized covert resistance activities, smuggling messages and maintaining morale. Grini symbolizes resilience under Nazi oppression.
...used collective punishment against civilians...
To suppress resistance, the Germans often used collective punishment against civilians.
Entire communities were subjected to reprisals for acts of sabotage, with homes destroyed, property seized, and innocent civilians arrested or executed.
This policy of collective punishment was intended to deter resistance but often had the opposite effect, further galvanizing public opposition to the occupiers.
The Jewish community in Norway faced severe persecution under Nazi rule. In 1942, the Nazis, with the assistance of the Quisling government, began the systematic arrest and deportation of Jews to concentration camps.
Kristian Aubert was tortured to death by the Gestapo in Oslo's auxiliary prison, Møllergaten 19, following his arrest and trial. His death occurred alongside that of Thor Salvesen, who was subjected to horrific abuse, reportedly hung by one arm and brutally beaten. Despite being in good health prior to their arrests, both men succumbed to their injuries within days—Aubert after ten days in custody, and Salvesen after six.
Their families received their clothing alongside fabricated official statements claiming their deaths were due to "stomach wounds, breathing difficulties, and lung inflammation with blood clots." The reality of their deaths, however, reflected the Gestapo's extreme cruelty and the inhumane conditions endured by those who resisted the Nazi occupation.
...characterized by fear, deprivation, and resistance...
The day-to-day life under German rule was a constant struggle for survival, characterized by fear, deprivation, and resistance.
Despite the harsh repression, the Norwegian people found ways to maintain their cultural identity and oppose the occupiers.
The occupation left deep scars on Norwegian society but also fostered a strong sense of national unity and resilience that would shape the country’s post-war recovery.
The Norwegian Parliament Building under Nazi occupation in May 1941. Witnessing governmental buildings under Nazi control symbolized a profound loss of sovereignty for Norwegians, reinforcing the reality of occupation. Iconic structures, once representing national independence, became tools of oppression. This stark visual reminder fueled resentment, strengthened resistance movements, and deepened the resolve to reclaim Norway's freedom and self-determination.
...a profound impact on the Norwegian psyche...
The experiences of arrests, executions, forced labor, and economic hardship during the occupation had a profound impact on the Norwegian psyche, leading to a widespread desire for justice and accountability after the war ended.
Those who collaborated with the Germans faced trials, while the stories of resistance became a source of national pride, celebrated as a testament to the enduring spirit of the Norwegian people.
Grini detention camp in Norway during the German Occupation. Grini detention camp, near Oslo, was Norway's largest prison camp during the German occupation. Initially a Norwegian prison, it became a Nazi internment center for political prisoners, resistance members, and Jews. Brutal conditions and forced labor defined inmates' experiences there. This photograph was taken on the day the camp was finally liberated in 1945.
The Resistance
During the German occupation of Norway from 1940 to 1945, resistance movements played a critical role in undermining the Nazis' efforts and assisting the Allied forces.
These movements included diverse groups that engaged in acts of sabotage, espionage, and communication with the Allies, contributing to the eventual liberation of Norway.
Notably, organizations like Milorg and XU were central to the Norwegian resistance.
The remains of pro-Nazi Nasjonal samlings posters which have been torn down by unknown Norwegian civilians. Non-violent resistance in occupied Norway included civil disobedience, symbolic acts, and cultural defiance. Citizens boycotted German-controlled events, wore paper clips or red clothing as subtle protests, and engaged in underground press activities. Strikes, sabotage-free demonstrations, and silent protests, like empty streets or theaters, highlighted solidarity against the occupation without direct confrontation.
...Nazi policies became more oppressive...
In the early years of the German occupation, there was no unified resistance movement in Norway.
However, as the occupation deepened and Nazi policies became more oppressive, particularly after the 1942 invasion of the Soviet Union, resistance efforts gained momentum.
Milorg, established in 1940, was one of the most significant organized resistance groups. It was a clandestine military organization that aimed to train Norwegians for eventual armed resistance and sabotage operations against German forces.
Members of Milorg at Akershus Fortress on 11 May 1945. Milorg was Norway's primary resistance organization during the Second World War, formed in 1941 to oppose Nazi occupation. Initially small and decentralized, it grew into a coordinated network of 40,000 members by 1945. Milorg conducted sabotage operations, gathered intelligence for the Allies, and trained for eventual liberation. Despite severe Gestapo crackdowns, it maintained crucial underground activities. Milorg’s efforts, supported by British intelligence, significantly disrupted German plans and laid the groundwork for Norway’s transition back to freedom after the war.
...experience in espionage and covert operations...
Over time, Milorg grew to become a nationwide network, with members ranging from ordinary civilians to former military personnel.
It operated under the principle of guerilla warfare, and its activities included sabotage of German infrastructure, particularly communications and transport networks, which were essential to the German war effort.
Another prominent group, XU, operated primarily in the field of intelligence. It was formed in 1940 by individuals with experience in espionage and covert operations.
XU gathered valuable information on German troop movements, weaponry, and other military activities, relaying it to the British intelligence services.
Their work contributed significantly to the strategic planning of the Allies and helped hinder the German occupation in Norway.
Sverre Bergh (left), a Norwegian engineer was recruited to spy in Nazi Germany. He lived in Dresden, studying at Dresden University of Technology while secretly reporting back to XU and the British Secret Intelligence Service.
SOE agents in Bergen in 1943. The Norwegian resistance and British intelligence collaborated closely during the Second World War to undermine German occupation. British agencies like the Special Operations Executive (SOE) trained and equipped Norwegian agents, enabling sabotage missions, intelligence gathering, and support for Allied operations. Notable successes included destroying heavy water facilities at Vemork and aiding covert communication networks. This partnership strengthened Norway's resistance efforts, disrupted German war plans, and demonstrated the critical role of coordination between occupied nations and Allied intelligence.
Bergenhus Festningsmuseum
...numerous acts of sabotage and espionage...
Resistance movements in Norway engaged in numerous acts of sabotage and espionage to disrupt German operations. Sabotage became one of the primary tactics employed by the resistance, aiming to cripple German infrastructure and industry.
One notable act was the sabotage of the Norsk Hydro plant at Vemork in 1943, which produced heavy water used in the German nuclear weapons program.
The sabotage was carried out by a small group of Norwegian and British operatives, and it significantly delayed Nazi efforts to develop atomic weapons.
Recommendations for awards to the members of the SOE team carrying out the Operation Gunnerside mission. Operation Gunnerside, executed in February 1943, was a pivotal sabotage mission targeting the heavy water plant at Vemork, Norway, crucial for Nazi atomic research. Norwegian resistance fighters, trained in Britain, parachuted into Hardangervidda, joining local operatives. They infiltrated the heavily guarded facility, destroying key production equipment without casualties. The operation crippled Germany’s nuclear ambitions and showcased Norwegian resilience and collaboration with Allied forces. Gunnerside remains one of the Second World War’s most successful sabotage missions, highlighting Norway’s vital role.
...the infiltration of German communications...
Espionage was also a vital component of the resistance efforts. XU, as mentioned, focused on gathering intelligence about German movements and operations, which it passed on to the Allies.
One of its most significant successes was the infiltration of German communications, allowing the Allies to gather critical information that aided military operations.
Furthermore, resistance members engaged in direct communication with the Allies, facilitating the exchange of vital supplies, equipment, and instructions for future operations.
A selection of the types of arms that were dropped into German-occupied Europe during the war to support the resistance groups. The OSS (Office of Strategic Services) and SOE (Special Operations Executive) supplied Norwegian resistance forces with arms, explosives, and equipment through covert air drops. These provisions enabled sabotage missions, intelligence gathering, and guerilla operations against German occupiers. Such support strengthened Norway's resistance, aiding Allied efforts to disrupt Nazi operations in Scandinavia.
From left to right, Bazooka, M-1 carbine, M-1 carbine with folding stock, a United Defense Model 42 Submachinegun, Sten gun, Bren Light machine gun and a Lee Enfield rifle.
https://arsof-history.org/articles/v3n1_supplying_resistance_page_1.html
...saving thousands of lives...
Additionally, many Norwegians were involved in the covert movement of Jews and other targeted individuals out of Nazi-occupied Norway, particularly after the Nazi policy of deporting Jews to concentration camps was implemented in 1942.
The resistance helped Jews escape to Sweden or the UK, saving around 900 lives.
Women and youth played crucial roles in the Norwegian resistance, often working as couriers, informants, and operatives in sabotage activities.
Women, in particular, were well-positioned to carry out tasks that would have aroused suspicion if performed by men, such as gathering intelligence, smuggling, or acting as couriers for messages and weapons.
Many women also worked with underground newspapers, which were used to spread anti-Nazi propaganda and keep the population informed about the progress of the war.
Norwegian reistance members from Milorgdistrikt 25 in Hamar in May 1945, right after the liberation. The woman is Eva Kløvstad, who was the actual leader of the district from the end of 1944. Norwegian women played vital roles in the resistance during World War II. They served as couriers, intelligence agents, and saboteurs, often operating under great personal risk. Women like Anne Sofie Østvedt and Lise Børsum helped smuggle documents, aid refugees, and organize resistance cells, showcasing courage and resourcefulness in the fight against occupation.
...contributed significantly to the resistance...
Youth groups, especially the Norwegian Scout movement, also contributed significantly to the resistance.
Many young people were involved in distributing leaflets, organizing demonstrations, and gathering intelligence.
They played an essential role in the underground press and communication efforts, often acting as messengers between different resistance cells.
The youth’s involvement in the resistance was not only a form of rebellion but also a means of asserting national identity in the face of Nazi oppression.
Anti-Nazi graffiti on the streets of Oslo, reading “Live” above the monogram for the Norwegian king, who had fled when the Germans invaded in 1940. Graffiti became a powerful tool of protest and non-violent resistance in Nazi-occupied countries. Messages, symbols, and slogans mocking the regime or promoting defiance appeared on walls and public spaces. These acts of silent rebellion, often anonymous, boosted morale, undermined Nazi authority, and spread hope within oppressed communities under occupation.
Bettmann/Getty Images
...diverse, well-organized, and effective...
In conclusion, the resistance movements in occupied Norway were diverse, well-organized, and effective.
Groups like Milorg and XU orchestrated acts of sabotage, espionage, and communication with the Allies, significantly hindering the German war effort.
Women and youth were instrumental in these efforts, often taking on dangerous and vital roles in the underground resistance.
Their courage and determination helped lay the foundation for the eventual liberation of Norway.
Squadron Leader J Macadam meets three Norwegian resistance fighters in Oslo following the arrival of British forces in Norway in May 1945. The Norwegian resistance collaborated with Allied forces by gathering intelligence, sabotaging Nazi operations, and assisting Allied agents. Through secret networks, they relayed vital information, supported supply drops, and facilitated escapes, playing a crucial role in weakening German control and aiding liberation efforts.
https://scalar.usc.edu/works/reel-norden/media/norwegian-resistance-fighters
The Holocaust in Norway
The Holocaust had a profound and devastating impact on Norway during its Nazi occupation.
The systematic persecution and deportation of Jews in Norway is a tragic chapter in the nation's history.
Although the number of Jewish victims in Norway was smaller compared to other countries in Europe, the consequences for the Jewish community and the broader Norwegian society were devastating.
May 1940, only two months after the German occupation started, the German commander in Fredrikstad put up the sign with the warning "Jewish Shop" in Norwegian and German.
Anti-Semite graffiti and German posters on a shop in Oslo, occupied Norway during the Second World War. The graffiti proclaims (left to right): Jøde-parasitten skaffet oss 9de april (The Jew parasite got us 9 April) and Palestina kaller på alle jøder. Vi tåler dem ikke mer i Norge! (Palestine calls for all Jews. We don't stand them any more in Norway!).
Anders Beer Wilse (1865–1949) - Galleri Nor Tilvekstnummer: NF.WF 15027 Internnr: NBR9204:21800
...faced increasing discrimination and persecution...
When Nazi Germany invaded Norway in 1940, the country was quickly brought under occupation.
Early in the occupation, Jews in Norway, numbering around 2,000 people, faced increasing discrimination and persecution, as the German occupiers began to enforce anti-Semitic laws similar to those introduced in other Nazi-occupied countries.
The Nazis adopted policies aimed at isolating Jews from society, stripping them of their rights, and eventually deporting them to concentration camps.
The estimate of numbers of Jews presented at the Wannsee Conference, which incorrectly estimated the number of Jews in Norway as 1,300. The Wannsee Conference, held on January 20, 1942, near Berlin, formalized plans for the "Final Solution," Nazi Germany's systematic extermination of Jews. Senior officials coordinated logistics for mass deportations and genocide, marking a chilling milestone in Holocaust history.
...required all Jews to be registered and later deported...
In 1942, the Nazi occupiers of Norway began to implement the “Final Solution,” the plan to systematically exterminate Jews.
A significant turning point came with the enactment of the German order that required all Jews to be registered and later deported.
This directive was carried out by the Norwegian collaborationist government under the leadership of Vidkun Quisling, the puppet leader of Norway, who aligned himself with Nazi ideals.
Who's Who in the Jewish World, 1939 (3rd.ed.) By Mikal Peder Olaus Johannessen Sylten. Softcover. 96 pages. Printed as an attache to the author's antisemitic periodical Nationalt Tidsskrift (1916-1945). Contained a list of Jews or presumed Jews in Norway sorted by occupation. Housewives and children were listed under "different occupations." First edition was printed in 1925.
...conducted a mass arrest of the Jewish community...
On the 26th October 1942, the Norwegian government, under Nazi orders, conducted a mass arrest of the Jewish community in Oslo.
The Nazi authorities rounded up around 500 Jews, including men, women, and children, and transported them to the harbor, where they were placed aboard the German ship DS Donau.
The ship departed from Oslo with its human cargo bound for Auschwitz, where most of the Norwegian Jews aboard were murdered in the gas chambers.
Only a small number of those deported survived the Holocaust, with many who were sent to Auschwitz perishing in the brutal conditions of the camp.
Entrance to hell: German guards await the shuttered transport trains at Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration camp in occupied Poland. The camp’s crematoria can be seen in the far haze. For many Norwegian Jews, this would be their final destination.
...there was also significant resistance...
While the Nazi occupation saw many Norwegians collaborate with the occupiers, there was also significant resistance.
When news of the deportation plan became known, Norwegian resistance groups and civilians took action to protect the Jewish community.
Some Norwegians, including members of the resistance and ordinary citizens, assisted Jews in fleeing the country to neutral Sweden, where they could find sanctuary.
More than 900 Jews were successfully smuggled out of Norway by these courageous individuals, with the help of both organized resistance and spontaneous acts of solidarity.
The Norwegian government-in-exile, led by King Haakon VII, denounced the deportations and expressed outrage at the treatment of Jews.
The Norwegian people, despite facing brutal reprisals, rallied around their Jewish neighbours, and many stood in defiance of the Nazi regime's racial policies.
For example, some Christian leaders and ordinary citizens publicly condemned the deportations, and some Christian families hid Jews to protect them from arrest.
The final Red Cross letter written by Susi Bernstein from England to her parents in Oslo, Richard and Gisela. The Jewish couple had fled the Nazis in Austria and then Czechoslovakia, before finally settling in Oslo, thinking they would be safe there. Sadly, this was not the case and by 1943, both parents had been transported from Norway and ended up in Auschwitz concentration camp. Tragically, at the time Susi was writing her letter, both her parents were already dead. murdered by the Nazis.
https://www.theholocaustexplained.org/life-in-nazi-occupied-europe/occupation-case-studies/norway/
...marked by grief and remorse...
The Holocaust left a deep scar on Norway. The Jewish community, once vibrant and integral to the country’s social and economic life, was decimated.
The survivors who returned to Norway after the war faced a country marked by grief and remorse, with many having lost family members and homes.
In total, 767 Jews were deported from Norway, and 762 of them perished in Nazi death camps.
The country was left to reckon with the horror of its own complicity in the Holocaust and the human cost of the Nazi occupation.
The ship Donau leaves the quayside, with 529 Jewish men, women and children on board. The Donnau was a German transport ship used during the Second World War, infamous for its role in deporting Norwegian Jews to Auschwitz in 1942. Departing Oslo on November 26, it carried Jewish prisoners, most of whom perished in the Holocaust. The Donnau symbolizes the brutal realities of Nazi occupation.
NTB scanpix
...significant resistance to Nazi policies...
In the post-war period, Norway sought to come to terms with its role in the Holocaust.
While there was significant resistance to Nazi policies, the Norwegian state’s collaboration with Nazi authorities, including the actions of the Quisling government, led to a long period of soul-searching and atonement.
The Norwegian resistance’s role in helping Jews escape to Sweden was a source of national pride, but the stark reality of the deportations remained a painful chapter in the country's history.
...international efforts to support the victims...
The Holocaust also had a lasting effect on Norwegian society's understanding of human rights and justice.
The post-war years saw Norway engage in international efforts to support the victims of the Holocaust, while Holocaust education became an essential part of Norway’s curriculum.
The country’s reckoning with its role in the persecution of Jews has contributed to a broader commitment to preventing future atrocities.
A backpack actually used by Jewish refugees fleeing across the border from Norway to Sweden during World War II, next to the border crossing gate.
In the winter of 1942, the Jewish family Feinberg in Oslo had to go to the police and have their ID cards stamped with a red ”J”. This is the police copy of the card of the family's 19 year old daughter Rachel. Six months later the whole family was sent to Auschwitz where Rachel immediately was killed in the gas chamber.
Reference: S-1708 Sosialdepartementet, Våre falne, Ec 21 A.
https://www.arkivverket.no/en/using-the-archives/world-war-ii/norwegians-in-captivity
Carrying on the fight
During the German occupation of Norway, many Norwegians managed to escape to countries like Sweden, Britain, and other Allied nations.
These individuals played an instrumental role in the war effort, contributing to the liberation of Norway and the defeat of Nazi Germany.
Whether by joining the armed forces, participating in the Norwegian government-in-exile, or assisting in espionage and resistance efforts, their efforts were crucial to the eventual liberation of their homeland.
Norwegian refugees undergoing military training in Sweden. In 1942, the Norwegian government, in collaboration with the Swedish authorities, began the training of 8-9,000 younger Norwegian refugees in Sweden for police departments. These police forces are intended to take over the police service and maintain peace and order in the liberated areas of Norway. During the negotiations in Stockholm between the Norwegian Minister of Foreign Affairs Trygve Lie and Minister of Justice Terje Wold on the one hand and the Swedish Government on the other, an agreement was reached that a number of Norwegian police officers would travel to Northern Norway and be stationed in the areas anticipated to be liberated by Russian and Norwegian troops. Mälsåker Castle by Mälaren is one of the locations in Sweden where Norwegian reserve police were trained. The picture shows some of the crew outside their barracks.
...fled the country to avoid capture...
As soon as Norway fell to the German invasion in April 1940, many members of the Norwegian government, military leaders, and political figures fled the country to avoid capture.
The Norwegian government-in-exile was established in London, with King Haakon VII and Prime Minister Johan Nygaardsvold leading the effort.
This government served as a symbol of Norwegian resistance and legitimacy throughout the war.
King Haakon VII leaving a church in Newcastle during the Second World War. During the German occupation of Norway, King Haakon VII led the government-in-exile from the United Kingdom, symbolizing Norwegian resistance. Based in London, he inspired national unity through radio broadcasts and diplomatic efforts, maintaining international support for Norway’s cause. His steadfast leadership became a beacon of hope for occupied Norwegians.
https://nye.digitalarkivet.no/source/241506/photo/d4805356-6f1f-4d8e-8d71-e659c7a27387?media=photo
...maintaining a presence on the international stage...
The establishment of the government-in-exile was vital for organizing Norway’s post-war future and maintaining a presence on the international stage.
It helped coordinate efforts with the Allies, particularly in terms of military operations and diplomacy.
The government-in-exile also played a crucial role in securing support for the Norwegian resistance inside the country and aiding in the establishment of a strategy for liberation.
Norwegian refugees arrive at Kjesäter, Sweden after having escaped from Norway. Thousands of Norwegians fled to neutral Sweden to escape German occupation, including resistance members, Jews, and political dissidents. Sweden provided refuge, offering safety, housing, and training camps for resistance fighters. These refugees contributed to underground movements, aiding Norway’s eventual liberation while surviving in exile under challenging conditions.
https://www.arkivverket.no/en/using-the-archives/world-war-ii/norway-in-exile#!#block-body-1
...fought alongside Allied troops...
Norway's first exiled air unit was 330 Squadron equipped with Northrop torpedo-bombers. This squadron was established in the autumn of 1940 and was operating from Akureyri, Iceland, from July 1941. Over two years, it escorted 400 convoys, destroyed U-boats, and repelled air attacks under harsh Arctic conditions, with ground crews ensuring planes remained operational in extreme cold. A photo captures Northrop aircraft flying in formation.
Thousands of Norwegians who escaped the German occupation joined Allied forces during the war.
The most significant contribution came from the Norwegian armed forces in exile, which had to be reformed and trained in the United Kingdom.
These individuals joined various branches of the British military, including the Royal Air Force (RAF), the British Army, and the Royal Navy, where they fought alongside Allied troops in multiple theatres of war.
One of the most well-known contributions was made by Norwegian sailors who joined the British Royal Navy.
Norwegian merchant ships had played an essential role in maintaining supply lines for the Allies, and many Norwegian seamen chose to continue this role despite the dangers.
Notably, the Norwegian navy participated in naval battles in the Atlantic, and Norwegian soldiers fought in campaigns in North Africa and Italy.
The Norwegian Army also formed a number of battalions that fought alongside the British in key European operations.
Members of the Army's women's corps serving at the workshops in Norway House, Dumfries, Scotland, cycle to work in the morning. Norge Hus (Norway House) was the social hub for Norwegians in Dumfries and the original headquarters of the Scottish Norwegian Society, it also housed workshops and stores for the Army. It served as a key hub for Norwegian forces in exile during the Second World War, supporting military training, operations, and fostering unity among displaced Norwegians resisting German occupation.
https://nye.digitalarkivet.no/source/241506/photo/4ad01bf9-2ce9-4730-9209-7a01b24c5ac6?media=photo
...contributed to the Allied military efforts...
A particularly prominent figure in this regard was the Norwegian King’s Guard, which had been established in exile and contributed to the Allied military efforts, taking part in the liberation of Norway.
The contributions of Norwegians in the armed forces were vital to maintaining the morale of the Norwegian people, demonstrating that the struggle for freedom continued despite the occupation.
Anchored in a secluded cove on Frøya Island, five puffers sit seemingly abandoned, their worn exteriors designed to mislead Luftwaffe air patrols into believing they are unseaworthy. However, hidden below deck are heavily armed soldiers and civilians tasked with guarding cargoes of gold valued at nearly $20,000,000—treasures the Germans were desperately hunting. Puffers like these were ingeniously "stolen" by a Captain Gierløff, who used them to establish a daring escape route to Scotland.
...intelligence and espionage operations...
Many Norwegians who escaped to Allied nations contributed to the war effort by serving in intelligence and espionage operations.
Norway's intelligence service, the XU, operated covertly under the direction of the government-in-exile, gathering information on German activities and passing it to the Allies.
These operatives also helped orchestrate sabotage missions inside Norway, targeting vital German infrastructure such as transportation networks and communication lines.
Norwegian soldiers on a patrol mission in a fjord on Svalbard during the war. Norwegian espionage missions during the Second World War played a vital role in gathering intelligence on German activities, including in Svalbard. Operatives monitored German weather stations, sabotaged resources, and provided critical data to the Allies. These missions, often conducted under harsh Arctic conditions, showcased Norway's commitment to resisting Nazi occupation and aiding liberation efforts.
https://nye.digitalarkivet.no/source/241506/photo/ef5f82dc-c060-4dac-8dcd-7b842d060046?media=photo
...most significant Norwegian contributions...
One of the most significant Norwegian contributions to Allied intelligence was the assistance provided in disrupting the German nuclear weapons program.
Norwegians in exile worked alongside British intelligence to sabotage the German heavy water production at the Norsk Hydro plant at Vemork, an operation that delayed Nazi nuclear ambitions.
Furthermore, the Norwegian resistance movement, with its ties to the government-in-exile, engaged in critical communication with the Allies, coordinating efforts on the ground in Norway.
This included facilitating the smuggling of weapons and supplies to resistance fighters and aiding in the escape of Jews and other refugees to neutral Sweden.
This photo was taken during exercises in Scotland during the summer, where units of the Norwegian forces trained extensively in navigating flood-ravaged terrain, constructing rafts, assembling bridges, and making effective use of available resources. These activities were part of rigorous commando training designed to prepare Norwegian soldiers for specialized missions.
Norwegian forces in exile, based in the UK, underwent intensive training alongside British commandos. They mastered sabotage techniques, guerrilla warfare, and amphibious landings. This training, conducted under challenging conditions in Scotland, ensured that Norwegian operatives were equipped for clandestine operations, including resistance support and Arctic raids, significantly contributing to the Allied war effort.
https://nye.digitalarkivet.no/source/241506/photo/49b9c5d2-4f3a-4e88-b905-bbfdf5d47886?media=photo
...the tide of war turned...
The efforts of those who escaped Norway were instrumental in the eventual liberation of the country.
As the tide of war turned in favor of the Allies, these Norwegian forces played key roles in strategic operations aimed at retaking Norway.
In 1944-1945, Allied forces, including Norwegian troops in exile, carried out operations to weaken the German presence in Norway.
The support provided by the government-in-exile helped coordinate the Norwegian resistance, who continued to sabotage German efforts.
On a crisp winter's day, Norwegian aircraft and aircrew stood in formation for inspection during a royal visit to 'Little Norway'. This training camp, established on Centre Island in Lake Ontario near Toronto, operated from the 10th November, 1940, until spring 1943. It became a hub for Norwegian pilots and aircrew to receive advanced aviation training under Allied supervision and many Norwegians, who had escaped the German occupation of Norway, trained as aircrew here. The trainees often joined the Royal Norwegian Air Force (RNoAF), which operated alongside the British Royal Air Force in the fight against Germany. Little Norway symbolized both Norway’s resilience and its contribution to the Allied war effort.
After being sold to the Royal Canadian Air Force, who renamed it Lakeside Camp, Little Norway relocated its operations to Muskoka. Among its dedicated instructors was Conrad Mohr, who served from December 2, 1941, until his untimely death on February 22, 1943. His son, Bill Mohr, later preserved and gifted Conrad's photographs to Bergen, ensuring his legacy lives on.
...helped undermine German control...
When the Allies launched the final offensives to liberate Norway in 1945, they did so with the aid of Norwegian forces, both in the military and within the resistance.
The combined efforts of Norwegians serving in Allied armed forces, intelligence operations, and resistance groups inside Norway helped undermine German control, paving the way for the return of the Norwegian government and the restoration of the country’s sovereignty.
The engine room on board a Norwegian minesweeper, 1943. During the German occupation, much of the Norwegian Navy escaped to Allied territory, continuing the fight under the Norwegian government-in-exile. Operating alongside Allied forces, Norwegian ships defended convoys, engaged in anti-submarine warfare, and supported resistance efforts. Their contributions were pivotal in maintaining Norway's presence in the war against Nazi Germany.
https://nye.digitalarkivet.no/source/241506/photo/fd7d8752-dd5f-48ae-922e-f08c6b30ad93?media=photo
...made invaluable contributions to the Allied war effort...
Those who escaped Norway during the German occupation made invaluable contributions to the Allied war effort, both through military service, intelligence gathering, and resistance operations.
Their dedication not only helped in the ultimate defeat of Nazi Germany but also in securing the future of an independent Norway.
Their actions, often at great personal risk, played a pivotal role in the liberation of Norway and the broader Allied victory in Europe.
The legacy of these exiled Norwegians is a testament to the resilience and courage of the Norwegian people during the darkest years of the war.
Escape routes in occupied Norway were crucial for resistance members, Allied agents, and persecuted individuals like Jews. These covert paths, often through rugged terrain or by sea, led to neutral Sweden or the UK. Facilitated by brave locals, they enabled intelligence sharing, military coordination, and the safe evacuation of targeted individuals.
https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/gallery/norway-maps
Strategic Role in the German War Effort
The German occupation of Norway was a critical component of the Nazi military strategy.
Norway's strategic location and resources made it vital to Germany's broader war aims, particularly concerning naval operations, U-boat deployment, and the pursuit of nuclear technology.
By securing Norway, the Germans significantly enhanced their capabilities to challenge Allied forces in the Atlantic Ocean and protect their own supply routes.
Norwegian SS Volunteers on the Eastern Front during an inspection by Norwegian Leader Vidkun Quisling on April 22, 1942. Some Norwegians collaborated with German occupiers, joining the military for ideological reasons, opportunism, or coercion. Members of Nasjonal Samling (National Unity), a fascist party, supported Nazi ideology, while others sought economic stability or were pressured by threats. Collaborators faced societal backlash and legal consequences post-war.
https://www.reddit.com/r/WW2info/comments/1b332b3/norwegian_ss_volunteers_on_the_eastern_front/
...enabling long-range reconnaissance flights over Britain...
German Air Operations in Norway: Bomber Limits and Fighter Bases Map: The capture of Norway and its air bases meant that German aircraft could range out across the North Sea and start to encroach on the Northern regions of England and Scotland.
Occupied Norway played a notable if limited role in supporting their air campaign during the Battle of Britain.
By establishing airbases in Norway, particularly at Stavanger and Trondheim, the Luftwaffe extended its range, enabling long-range reconnaissance flights over Britain.
These flights provided the Germans with critical intelligence on British air defences and coastal activities, helping to plan their bombing raids more effectively.
Additionally, the proximity of these bases allowed German bombers like the Heinkel He 111 to strike northern targets in Britain and disrupt key military infrastructure.
The Luftwaffe’s presence in Norway also provided a strategic advantage by threatening British shipping routes in the North Sea, indirectly pressuring Britain’s war effort.
A German Heinkel He 111 bomber (an earlier model lacking the fully glazed cockpit) stationed at Banak Norway 1940. German bombers exploited Norway's occupation by using its airfields, such as those in Trondheim and Stavanger, as strategic bases. These locations extended their operational range, enabling attacks on Allied convoys, Arctic supply routes, and northern Britain. Norway’s geography provided vital staging points for Luftwaffe dominance in the North Atlantic region.
https://www.worldwarphotos.info/gallery/germany/aircrafts-2/heinkel_he111/he111-1940-banak-norway-2/
...provided ideal conditions for establishing naval bases...
The geographic features of Norway, particularly its extensive coastline with deep fjords, provided ideal conditions for establishing naval bases.
The fjords offered natural protection against air raids and allowed Germany to safely harbor its naval vessels, including battleships, destroyers, and U-boats.
Key ports such as Trondheim, Bergen, and Narvik became crucial hubs for the German Kriegsmarine (Navy).
These bases enabled the Germans to launch operations far into the Atlantic Ocean, extending the reach of their naval power.
Germany’s Wehrmacht Mountain Troops traverse the Norwegian mountains on cross-country skis in 1941. For German soldiers, occupied Norway offered critical strategic advantages. Its rugged terrain and fortified positions provided defensive strongholds against Allied invasions. Norway's coastal fortifications, part of Festung Norwegen, safeguarded naval and U-boat operations, while airbases enabled attacks on Arctic convoys supplying the Soviet Union. The occupation also secured access to Norway’s resources, including food and raw materials, vital for sustaining German troops. Norway's location ensured control over North Atlantic shipping lanes and bolstered Germany's strategic reach.
...targeting Allied shipping convoys...
Map of the main U-Boat bases in occupied Norway. Norway's long, western coastline would provide excellent locations for sheltered U-boat bases.
One of the most significant advantages of occupying Norway was the establishment of U-boat bases.
The bases at Bergen, Trondheim, and Stavanger facilitated the deployment of German U-boats (submarines) into the North Atlantic, targeting Allied shipping convoys.
This access was vital for Germany’s strategy of economic warfare, known as the Tonneskrieg, which aimed to disrupt the flow of supplies and war materials from the United States to Britain.
By operating from Norway, U-boats could avoid British patrols in the English Channel and strike shipping routes further west.
U-255 at Narvik after the attack on the ships of Convoy PQ 17. Germany would establish U-boat bases in occupied Norway, including Bergen, Trondheim, and Narvik, to dominate the North Atlantic. These bases would offer strategic access to Allied shipping lanes, providing refueling, repairs, and shelter for submarines. Their presence would strengthen German naval operations, challenge Allied supply routes and prolong the Battle of the Atlantic.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_U-boat_bases_in_occupied_Norway
...most prolonged and critical campaigns...
The Battle of the Atlantic was one of the most prolonged and critical campaigns of the Second World War, as it involved the struggle to control the vital Atlantic sea routes.
Germany's use of Norway as a staging ground for naval and air operations was a significant factor in this campaign.
The northern ports and airfields in Norway allowed the Germans to operate long-range reconnaissance aircraft like the Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor, which could locate Allied convoys and direct U-boats to intercept them.
...essential for the German war industry...
Norway’s strategic importance also extended to its role in protecting Germany’s iron ore supply lines from Sweden.
Iron ore was essential for the German war industry, and during winter, when the Baltic Sea froze, ore shipments were routed through Norwegian ports.
Securing these routes was critical to sustaining Germany’s war production.
Thus, Norway served as both a shield for Germany’s vital resources and a platform for offensive operations in the Atlantic.
...Germany's ambitions to develop nuclear technology...
Beyond its naval significance, Norway also played a key role in Germany's ambitions to develop nuclear technology, primarily through its heavy water production.
Heavy water (deuterium oxide) is a form of water used as a neutron moderator in nuclear reactors, which can potentially be used to produce plutonium for nuclear weapons.
The most significant source of heavy water during the war was the Vemork hydroelectric plant near Rjukan, Norway.
...priority for the German atomic weapons...
The Germans took control of the Vemork plant shortly after occupying Norway, recognizing its potential for their nuclear research program.
The plant's heavy water production became a top priority for the German atomic weapons project, as it was crucial for experiments in nuclear fission.
However, the Allies were aware of the strategic implications of German access to heavy water and took steps to hinder its production.
The Allied powers, particularly Britain and Norway's government-in-exile, understood the threat posed by the German nuclear program.
As a result, they initiated a series of daring sabotage missions aimed at disrupting the production of heavy water at Vemork. The most famous of these was Operation Gunnerside, carried out in February 1943.
...destroyed key components of the plant...
In Operation Gunnerside, a team of Norwegian commandos, trained in Britain, successfully infiltrated the Vemork facility, planted explosives, and destroyed key components of the plant, severely disrupting heavy water production.
This operation is widely regarded as one of the most successful sabotage missions of the Second World War.
The sabotage delayed German nuclear research and prevented them from acquiring sufficient heavy water to develop a functional reactor or pursue nuclear weapons.
Vemork hydroelectric power plant in Norway (pictured in 1947). During the Second World War, it became a crucial target due to its production of heavy water, essential for Nazi Germany’s nuclear weapons research. Norwegian resistance fighters, alongside British operatives, famously sabotaged the plant in 1943, thwarting German atomic ambitions.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_heavy_water_sabotage
...the Allies continued to target it...
Despite German efforts to rebuild the Vemork plant, the Allies continued to target it.
In November 1943, American bombers launched a raid to further damage the facility, though with limited success.
Eventually, in early 1944, the Germans decided to transport the remaining heavy water stocks to Germany.
However, Norwegian resistance fighters, aware of this plan, sabotaged the ferry transporting the heavy water across Lake Tinnsjø, sinking it and effectively ending Germany’s heavy water ambitions.
...exert significant pressure on Allied shipping routes...
Occupied Norway played a pivotal role in the German war effort, offering strategic advantages that extended from naval and submarine operations to critical resources for nuclear research.
The use of Norway’s ports and fjords enabled Germany to exert significant pressure on Allied shipping routes, prolonging the Battle of the Atlantic.
The successful Allied efforts to sabotage German control over heavy water production were instrumental in preventing the Nazis from developing nuclear capabilities.
Thus, Norway’s occupation had a profound impact on the course of the Second World War, influencing both the naval war in the Atlantic and the race for atomic power.
The Liberation of Norway
The liberation of Norway during the final years of the Second World War was a complex process involving the gradual decline of German control, the strategic isolation of the country, and the heroic efforts of the Norwegian Resistance.
As the tide of war turned against Nazi Germany in 1944, Norway, occupied since April 1940, found itself increasingly isolated from the rest of Hitler’s crumbling empire.
The eventual surrender of German forces in Norway in May 1945 marked not only the end of occupation but also the beginning of a new chapter in Norwegian history.
An official ceremony celebrating the end of German occupation of Norway, 6th June 1945. After Norway’s liberation on the 8th May 1945, widespread celebrations erupted, marked by parades, flag-waving, and joyous gatherings. The return of King Haakon VII on June 7 symbolized national unity and freedom.
https://www.reddit.com/r/HistoryPorn/comments/ggd5ek/colorized_june_8th_1945_celebrating_the_end_of/
...weakening due to significant setbacks...
By 1944, Germany's ability to maintain control over its occupied territories was weakening due to significant setbacks on multiple fronts.
The Allied invasions of Normandy in June 1944 and southern France later that summer, along with the Soviet advances from the east, forced Germany to divert resources and troops away from Norway.
The strategic value of Norway had diminished as Germany shifted its focus to defending its own borders.
Supplies to the German forces stationed in Norway became scarce, and morale among occupation troops steadily declined.
...effectively cut off German supply lines...
The Allies, recognizing Norway’s relative isolation, adopted a strategy of containment rather than direct invasion.
By tightening their naval blockade around the Norwegian coast, they effectively cut off German supply lines.
This strategy left German forces in Norway stranded with diminishing resources, effectively isolating them from the rest of the war effort.
As the war neared its conclusion, the German military situation in Norway became increasingly untenable.
Hitler had originally intended to hold Norway at all costs, believing that it would remain a strategic asset for control over the North Atlantic and the Baltic Sea.
However, as Germany faced defeat on all fronts, this strategy became impossible to sustain.
...rapid collapse of German lines elsewhere...
By early 1945, German forces began withdrawing from remote areas in Norway, concentrating their troops in larger towns and cities.
The rapid collapse of German lines elsewhere in Europe forced the occupation forces in Norway into a defensive posture.
When Adolf Hitler committed suicide on the 30th April 1945, the remaining German command in Norway faced the inevitable collapse of their mission.
German mountain troops on the road after evacuating Oslo. As the Second World War ended, over 350,000 German troops stationed in Norway faced disarmament and repatriation. Isolated from the crumbling Third Reich, many surrendered without resistance. Allied forces oversaw their withdrawal, while Norway regained control. These troop movements marked the final dismantling of Nazi occupation in Scandinavia.
...would comply with the orders to capitulate...
On the 5th May, German forces in Denmark surrendered, and General Eisenhower sent a telegram to Norway's resistance headquarters, relaying instructions to General Franz Böhme on contacting Allied General Headquarters.
On the 7 May, Karl Dönitz dismissed Norway's Reichskommissar Josef Terboven, transferring his authority to Böhme. Later that evening, at 21:10, the German High Command instructed Böhme to carry out the surrender plans.
At 22:00, Böhme made a radio announcement declaring that German forces in Norway would comply with the orders to capitulate.
The official surrender of German forces in Norway occurred on 8th May 1945, just a day after Germany’s unconditional surrender to the Allies.
German prisoners of war being processed prior to embarkation from Norway to Germany after the official surrender of German forces on the 8th May 1945. Here prisoners rest at the embarkation camp at Mandal prior to boarding boats for Germany.
http://www.iwmcollections.org.uk/media/images/Photographs/Image/BU_009775.jpg
...a crucial role in undermining German control...
Throughout the occupation, the Norwegian Resistance played a crucial role in undermining German control and aiding the Allies.
The resistance network, which included groups like Milorg (the military organization) and various civilian organizations, grew increasingly bold in the final year of the occupation.
With German forces distracted by the deteriorating war effort elsewhere, the resistance ramped up their sabotage efforts, targeting key infrastructure such as railways, communications lines, and military installations.
...preventing reinforcements from reaching critical areas...
In the months leading up to liberation, the Norwegian Resistance was especially effective in disrupting German operations.
Sabotage missions, like those led by Max Manus and Gunnar Sønsteby, were instrumental in delaying German troop movements and preventing reinforcements from reaching critical areas.
These actions not only hindered the Germans but also boosted the morale of the Norwegian population.
Additionally, the resistance gathered and transmitted valuable intelligence to the Allies, helping coordinate the final push against Nazi forces.
Max Manus was a legendary Norwegian resistance fighter during the Second World War, renowned for his daring sabotage missions against German forces, including attacks on ships and supply lines.
...a powerful symbol of national unity...
One of the most symbolic moments in Norway’s liberation was the return of King Haakon VII.
The King, who had fled to Britain during the initial German invasion, became a powerful symbol of national unity and resistance throughout the occupation.
His regular radio broadcasts to the Norwegian people, delivered via the BBC, provided hope and encouragement during the darkest days of the war.
Following the German surrender in May 1945, King Haakon returned to a jubilant Norway on June 7, 1945, exactly five years after his forced departure.
Crown Prince Olav who just returned home to Norway being driving through the streets of Oslo, 13th May 1945. Sitting in the front passenger seat is Norwegian resistance fighter Max Manus.
...symbolized the end of the occupation...
His return was met with widespread celebration and marked the formal restoration of the Norwegian government.
The return of the King symbolized the end of the occupation and the re-establishment of a free and democratic Norway.
The surrender of German forces in Norway came as part of the broader capitulation of Nazi Germany. General Franz Böhme, the highest-ranking German officer in Norway, signed the official surrender on the 8th May 1945.
Over 350,000 German troops were still stationed in Norway at the time, making the surrender in Norway one of the largest single surrenders of German forces during the war.
The royal family of Norway waving to the welcoming crowds from HMS Norfolk at Oslo. With them is Crown Prince Olaf (centre) who came on board in a launch. The royal family escaped from Norway just after the German invasion.
...a complex process of rebuilding the nation...
A Swedish soldier and Norwegian resistance member shaking hands at the border, celebrating the end of German occupation in Norway, Värmland/Hedmark, 7th May 1945.
https://www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=2761870337276074&set=a.393169424146189
The immediate aftermath of the occupation was marked by a complex process of rebuilding the nation and dealing with those who had collaborated with the Nazis.
Vidkun Quisling, the head of Norway’s puppet government under German occupation, became a symbol of betrayal.
After the liberation, he was arrested, tried for treason, and executed in October 1945.
The Norwegian authorities also conducted a series of trials to prosecute collaborators and members of the Nazi-aligned Nasjonal Samling (National Unity) party, though the process was marked by a strong desire for justice rather than vengeance.
This process became known as the legal purge (rettsoppgjøret). More than 90,000 Norwegians were investigated for their roles in aiding the Germans, with thousands facing legal proceedings.
The liberation of Norway in May 1945 marked the collapse of Vidkun Quisling’s Nazi-aligned regime. As German forces surrendered, Quisling was arrested and charged with high treason for collaborating with the occupiers. His trial - which ran from the 20th August until the 10th September 1945 - exposed his role in aiding Nazi policies, including deporting Jews and suppressing resistance. Quisling’s actions made his name synonymous with betrayal. Convicted, he was executed in October 1945, symbolizing justice for Norway's wartime suffering and the restoration of national sovereignty.
https://pastdaily.com/2023/09/19/quisling-trial-continues-september-5-1945/
...addressing the social and economic impacts...
The liberation period also involved addressing the social and economic impacts of the occupation.
Norway faced significant challenges in rebuilding its economy, reintegrating returning refugees, and addressing the needs of its war-torn population.
However, the unity and resilience forged during the years of occupation and resistance laid the foundation for Norway’s post-war recovery.
A number of Norwegian children were sent to Sweden during or straight after the war to receive medical treatment, with many suffering the effects of malnutrition.
Source: Norske Kvinners Sanitetsforening PA-0379/U/L001
https://www.arkivverket.no/en/using-the-archives/world-war-ii/everyday-life#!#block-body-1
...heroic efforts of the Norwegian Resistance...
The liberation of Norway in 1945 was a culmination of years of resistance, strategic isolation of German forces, and the eventual collapse of Nazi Germany.
The heroic efforts of the Norwegian Resistance, combined with the isolation of German troops and the Allies’ strategic advances, ensured that Norway was freed without large-scale destruction.
The return of King Haakon VII and the restoration of Norway’s sovereign government marked the beginning of a new era for the country.
As the nation emerged from the shadow of occupation, it faced the dual challenges of rebuilding its institutions and healing the wounds left by five years of foreign rule and internal division.
Post-War Consequences and Legacy
The end of the Second World War in Norway marked the beginning of a challenging post-war era as the nation confronted the political, social, and economic consequences of five years of German occupation.
The process of rebuilding Norwegian society was deeply intertwined with addressing the legacies of wartime collaboration, resistance, and the enduring impact on national identity.
The aftermath of the occupation shaped Norway’s post-war political landscape, solidified its collective memory and continues to influence the nation’s identity to this day.
Memorial plaque at Stabekk elementary school remembering three of its pupils who were taken out of their classrooms and sent to Auschwitz during the German occupation.
...the balance between accountability and forgiveness...
While the legal purge - which dealt with those how had collaborated with the Germans during the occupation - was largely supported by the Norwegian public, it was not without controversy.
Some argued that the trials were driven by a desire for retribution rather than justice.
The severity of the sentences, particularly for lesser collaborators, sparked debates over the balance between accountability and forgiveness.
Ultimately, however, these trials were essential in restoring the rule of law and re-establishing trust in the government.
Norwegian Quislings (Nazi collaborators) of the collaborationist group "Sonderabteilung Lola" stand trial for treason. They were responsible for torturing, killing, and systematically informing on resistance fighters, 1946. Sonderabteilung Lola, also known in Norway as the Rinnanbanden (Rinnan Gang), was an independent unit operating under the German Sicherheitsdienst (SD) (intelligence agency of the SS) in Trondheim, as part of KDS Drontheim Referat IV. Led by Henry Rinnan, the group consisted of approximately 50–60 Norwegian informants, many of whom were former Waffen-SS soldiers. Their covert operations remained largely unknown to most Norwegians, including members of the Nasjonal Samling party, until their activities were exposed after the war.
https://www.reddit.com/r/Norway/comments/118h3gr/norwegian_quislings_nazi_collaborators_of_the/
...faced significant economic challenges...
Rebuilding Norway after the occupation required more than just punishing collaborators. The nation faced significant economic challenges, including damaged infrastructure, depleted resources, and social dislocation.
The Norwegian government, under the leadership of the Labour Party, prioritized economic recovery and social welfare reforms.
This included nationalizing key industries, investing in public infrastructure, and implementing policies to ensure social security for all citizens.
The post-war period saw Norway embrace a social democratic model that emphasized economic equality, social justice, and the welfare state, which became a cornerstone of Norwegian society.
Holocaust memorial at the Jewish cemetery at Lademoen in Trondheim, Norway. The Holocaust in occupied Norway left a profound legacy, marked by the deportation and murder of most Norwegian Jews. It spurred post-war reflection on complicity, justice for collaborators, and strengthened national commitments to human rights, democracy, and Holocaust remembrance.
...its commitment to rebuilding the nation...
Politically, the Labour Party emerged as the dominant force in the immediate post-war years, largely due to its leadership during the occupation and its commitment to rebuilding the nation.
The party’s emphasis on social welfare and economic stability resonated with the public’s desire for a fairer, more resilient society.
This stability helped Norway recover relatively quickly and laid the foundation for decades of political consensus and economic growth.
...a profound impact on Norwegian national identity...
The experience of occupation and resistance left a profound impact on Norwegian national identity.
The war years tested Norway’s sense of unity and resilience, ultimately reinforcing a strong collective identity rooted in the values of democracy, freedom, and resistance to oppression.
The role of the resistance movement, particularly groups like Milorg and the civilian resistance, became central to the nation’s post-war self-image.
Stories of heroism, such as the sabotage of the Vemork heavy water plant, were celebrated as examples of Norway’s unyielding spirit.
...preserving the nation’s dignity...
The resistance’s efforts were not only crucial in undermining German control but also in preserving the nation’s dignity during a period of foreign domination.
The narrative of the resistance became a source of national pride, shaping the way Norway viewed itself in the post-war world.
This legacy contributed to a renewed commitment to democratic values, human rights, and international cooperation, which continue to be pillars of Norwegian foreign policy today.
...symbolic of Norway’s determination...
The actions of the resistance fighters during the occupation became symbolic of Norway’s determination to uphold its sovereignty and democratic principles.
In the post-war years, many former resistance members played significant roles in politics, business, and public life, using their wartime experiences to guide their contributions to Norwegian society.
The shared experience of resistance also fostered a strong sense of national solidarity that helped smooth the path to political and social reconstruction.
...a significant role in shaping Norway’s defense policy...
The resistance's legacy also played a significant role in shaping Norway’s defense policy.
Determined never to be caught unprepared again, Norway became a founding member of NATO in 1949, seeking security through collective defense.
This alignment with Western powers was partly driven by the traumatic experience of occupation and the desire to avoid future vulnerabilities.
...a vital part of Norway’s collective memory...
The commemoration of the occupation period and the liberation remains a vital part of Norway’s collective memory.
Every year, May 8th is celebrated as Liberation Day (Frigjøringsdagen), honoring the sacrifices of those who fought against the occupation.
Memorials and museums, such as the Resistance Museum in Oslo, preserve the history of the resistance and educate future generations about the importance of vigilance in protecting democratic freedoms.
...a broader national reflection...
The legacy of the war also led to a broader national reflection on the themes of collaboration, resistance, and moral choices under occupation.
The period serves as a reminder of the complexities of war and the difficult decisions faced by individuals.
Norway’s post-war trials and reconciliation efforts are often cited as examples of how nations can balance the need for justice with the desire to rebuild and move forward.
Women who were involved with German soldiers during the war were subject to persecution and punishment. After liberation in 1945, Norway faced the sensitive issue of women who had relationships with German soldiers, often labeled as tyskertøser (German girls). Many faced public shaming, ostracism, and even imprisonment for "collaboration." Some had their heads forcibly shaved as a humiliating punishment. Children born from these relationships, stigmatized as war children, also faced discrimination. Over time, Norwegian society gradually reexamined this chapter, acknowledging the complexities of war and the unjust treatment of these women and their children.
Deutsches Bundesarkiv/Wikimedia Commons
https://kjonnsforskning.no/en/2015/08/punished-without-trial-sleeping-germans-during-war
...a lasting imprint on Norway...
The post-war consequences of the German occupation left a lasting imprint on Norway, shaping its political landscape, social policies, and national identity.
The trials of collaborators helped restore trust in the government, while the emphasis on social welfare and unity facilitated economic recovery and political stability.
The resistance’s legacy continues to influence Norway’s self-image and its commitment to democracy, both at home and abroad.
By commemorating the occupation period, Norway not only honors its past but also reaffirms its dedication to the values that guided it through one of the darkest chapters in its history.
Further reading
Hitler’s Northern Utopia by Despina Stratigakos explores Nazi plans to transform occupied Norway into a model Aryan society. The book delves into architectural and social engineering projects intended to create a "Germanic utopia" aligned with Nazi ideology. Stratigakos highlights the exploitation of Norwegian resources, forced labor, and the displacement of locals. By examining these ambitions, the book reveals the Nazis' broader imperial vision and Norway's role in their racial and geopolitical agenda during the Second World War.
Albert Jærn’s wartime diary, illustrated with wood and linoleum block cuts, documents the atrocities and indignities of Norway’s five-year Nazi occupation (1940–1945). A skilled book illustrator for Aschehoug, Jærn used simplified, evocative designs to convey powerful messages. Despite great personal risk, he secretly preserved his work, hidden from Nazi raids. Published after Norway’s liberation in 1945, the diary serves as both a testament to Jærn’s artistry and bravery and a lasting reminder of tyranny and resistance.