Seeds of Global Turmoil

Turning Point: Revolution, Warfare, and Unrest

The month of August 1918 witnessed a range of significant and interconnected events across the globe, highlighting political, social, and military turbulence.

Among these events was the establishment of the Provisional Military Dictatorship in Mughan, Azerbaijan, on the 4th August, a short-lived anti-communist regime that sought to resist Bolshevik influence amidst the chaos of the Russian Civil War.

This was paralleled by the eruption of the Toronto anti-Greek riot from 2–4 August, a violent outburst of racial tension against Greek immigrants in Canada, which reflected the xenophobic sentiments prevalent during the period.

Meanwhile, the approaching end of the First World War was signalled by the final Zeppelin bombing raid on Britain on the 5th August, marking a shift in aerial warfare tactics.

Additionally, military efforts continued with the launch of the Hundred Days Offensive on 8 August, a decisive Allied counteroffensive that led to the collapse of the German Empire.

Peace and Freedom in Sovdepiya (1919), a White Army propaganda poster from the Russian Civil War, depicting a caricature Leon Trotsky as a large demon like figure with bright red skin. The Provisional Military Dictatorship of Mughan, established in August 1918 during the Russian Civil War, was an anti-Bolshevik state that sought to preserve White Russian control but collapsed under local uprisings.

http://guity-novin.blogspot.com/2012/12/chapter-63-posters-of-russian-civil-war.html

German Zeppelin forced to land over France recovered Intact, 1917. The last Zeppelin bombing raid occurred on August 5, 1918. A fleet of Zeppelins attempted to attack England but faced fierce resistance and poor weather. Most airships failed to reach their targets. One, the L70, was shot down by British pilots Egbert Cadbury and Robert Leckie, marking the end of Zeppelin raids.

https://www.reddit.com/r/HistoryPorn/comments/gz3tul/wwi_german_zeppelin_forced_to_land_over_france/

...the global turbulence and upheaval...

Alongside these events, political movements such as the foundation of the Bessarabian Peasants' Party and the Communist Party of Finland in August 1918 signaled shifts in national and regional politics.

The turbulent atmosphere of the time was further evidenced by the assassination attempt on Vladimir Lenin on 30 August, underscoring the intense opposition to his leadership during the Russian Revolution.

Together, these events reflected the global turbulence and upheaval in the last few months of the First World War, marked by revolutionary movements, ethnic strife, military confrontations, and the reshaping of political landscapes worldwide.

In August 1918, Vladimir Lenin survived an assassination attempt in Moscow by Socialist Revolutionary Fanny Kaplan. Though severely injured with gunshot wounds, Lenin recovered, using the incident to intensify Bolshevik repression.

https://klimbim2014.wordpress.com/

Australian troops studying a destroyed German tank during the First World War. In August 1918, the war entered a decisive phase. The Allies launched the Hundred Days Offensive, starting with the Battle of Amiens on 8 August, which marked a turning point with significant breakthroughs against the Germans. The German forces, weakened by internal unrest and military setbacks, began retreating. Meanwhile, in Russia, the Bolsheviks faced resistance from anti-communist forces, including the short-lived Provisional Military Dictatorship of Mughan. The month saw key military shifts that foreshadowed the war’s conclusion.

https://www.reddit.com/r/battlefield_one/comments/gsxjcm/102_year_old_image_of_australian_troops_capturing/

Military Dictatorship established in Mughan, 1^st August 1918

The Provisional Military Dictatorship of Mughan was a short-lived anti-communist state established on 4 August 1918 in the Lankaran region of present-day Azerbaijan during the turmoil of the Russian Civil War.

Supported by British forces occupying nearby Baku, the Mughan government was led by White Russian Colonel T. P. Sukhorukov, who opposed Bolshevik influence and sought to maintain the region as an autonomous part of a "single and indivisible Russia."

This position reflected broader White Russian resistance to both Bolshevism and the growing Azerbaijani independence movement.

Initially, the administration aimed to preserve order and counter the Bolsheviks' revolutionary influence in the region.

However, the Mughan government faced significant challenges due to its reliance on external support and its inability to gain the loyalty of local populations, including the Talysh workers.

Mughan steppe on a 1918 map. In August 1918, the Provisional Military Dictatorship of Mughan was established as an anti-Bolshevik government, seeking to maintain control in southern Azerbaijan amidst the chaos of the Russian Civil War.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughan_clashes

The Painting 'Soldiers Song' (1954) by Soviet artist Pyotr Ivanovich Zhigimont (1914-2003) depicting the advance of the White Russian forces during the Russian Civil War. The Provisional Military Dictatorship of Mughan, established in August 1918, aligned with White Russian forces to oppose Bolshevik expansion during the Russian Civil War. Located in southern Azerbaijan, it served as a hub for anti-communist activities, advocating monarchist and anti-Bolshevik ideals while collaborating with local and foreign counter-revolutionary factions.

https://www.reddit.com/r/BattlePaintings/comments/n5ii8x/advance_of_the_white_russian_forces_russian_civil/

...organized a violent uprising...

In December 1918, the administration was reorganized into the Mughan Territorial Administration, a move that did little to solidify its authority.

On 25 April 1919, tensions reached a boiling point when pro-Bolshevik Talysh workers organized a violent uprising in Lankaran, effectively overthrowing the Mughan Territorial Administration.

This event marked the beginning of the end for the anti-communist regime. Shortly afterward, on 15 May 1919, the Extraordinary Congress of the "Councils of Workers' and Peasants' Deputies" of Lankaran district declared the establishment of the Mughan Soviet Republic, aligning the region with the Bolshevik cause.

These events underscored the fragility of anti-communist administrations in the chaotic aftermath of the Russian Revolution.

A Talysh girl from Tulu village, Astara Rayon, Azerbaijan, 1920. The Talysh played a crucial role in the downfall of the Provisional Military Dictatorship of Mughan by resisting its authority and aligning with Bolshevik forces, contributing to the collapse of the dictatorship.

https://picryl.com/media/talysh-girl-from-tulu-village-of-astara-72b1e1

'Ephemeral States of the Russian Civil War - this outstanding map demonstrates the widespread instability of Russia during the Civil War.' The Provisional Military Dictatorship of Mughan exemplified the transient states that emerged during the Russian Civil War, reflecting the region's fragmentation and ideological strife. Like many short-lived entities, it arose in response to local conditions, aligning with White Russian forces to oppose Bolshevism. Its brief existence, from August 1918 until Bolshevik forces reclaimed the region in early 1920, highlighted the instability and competing power struggles that characterized much of the Russian Empire during this turbulent period.

https://www.reddit.com/r/europe/comments/86st5w/ephemeral_states_of_the_russian_civil_war/

https://neverwasmag.com/2019/09/ephemeral-states-of-the-russian-civil-war/

Toronto anti-Greek riot, 2^nd-4^th August 1918

The 1918 Toronto anti-Greek riot, spanning 2–4 August (or 1–5 August, depending on accounts), was a three-day race riot targeting Greek immigrants in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

It remains the city's largest riot and one of the most significant anti-Greek uprisings globally. The violence, driven by xenophobia and misinformation, reflected broader racial and ethnic tensions of the early 20th century.

The riot was sparked by the expulsion of a disabled military veteran, Pvt. Claude Cludernay, from the Greek-owned White City Café after he attacked a waiter.

Though minor, the incident fueled widespread indignation against the Greek community, falsely accused of pro-German sympathies and not supporting the Allied war effort.

Crowds of 5,000–20,000 people, led by military veterans, looted and destroyed Greek-owned businesses in downtown Toronto, forcing police to invoke the Riot Act and call in militia forces.

“Angry Mob Wrecks Dozen Restaurants”, Toronto Daily Star, August 3, 1918.

Courtesy of the Toronto Public Library.

https://www.heritagetoronto.org/explore/greek-riots-yonge-memory/

Satirical cartoon depicting King Constantine I of Greece during World War I. The Toronto anti-Greek riots of August 1918 were fueled by xenophobia, misinformation, and post-war tensions. Triggered by a minor altercation at a Greek-owned café, the riots saw thousands looting and destroying Greek businesses, falsely accusing the community of pro-German sympathies. Widespread prejudice against Greeks reflected broader societal attitudes, portraying them as unassimilable and unpatriotic. These events highlighted the challenges faced by Greek immigrants, who were scapegoated during wartime and struggled for acceptance in Canadian society.

Punch Magazine, November 24, 1915. Illustration by John Partridge. Courtesy of the Heidelberg University Library.

https://www.heritagetoronto.org/explore/greek-riots-yonge-memory/

...forcing police to invoke the Riot Act...

The violence engulfed an estimated 50,000 participants, with over 20 restaurants destroyed and damages exceeding CA$1,000,000 in modern terms.

Greek leaders issued statements underscoring their support for the Allies, highlighting over 2,000 Greeks, including Torontonians, serving in the Canadian and Greek militaries.

Anti-Greek sentiments clearly displayed on this Toronto shop window. During the Toronto anti-Greek riots of 1918, mobs looted and destroyed over 20 Greek-owned businesses, including cafés and restaurants, causing widespread devastation. Damages exceeded CA$1,000,000 in modern terms. The violence, driven by xenophobia and misinformation, left many Greek families financially ruined and forced to relocate, reshaping the city's urban landscape.

https://www.tanea.gr/2018/09/12/english-edition/100-years-later-torontos-forgotten-anti-greek-riots-reconsidered/

...as immigrant groups were scapegoated...

The aftermath forced Greek families to relocate, forming a new community along Danforth Avenue, marking a shift in Toronto's urban and cultural landscape.

The riot mirrored similar events, such as the 1909 Omaha riot, where Greek immigrants in the U.S. faced mob violence. These incidents underscored the broader struggles of immigrant communities in the face of prejudice and assimilation pressures.

Globally, such events reflected a rising tide of nationalism and xenophobia, as immigrant groups were scapegoated amid the instability of the First World War and its aftermath.

The Greek diaspora’s subsequent efforts to demonstrate patriotism, including name changes and war bond purchases, highlighted the survival strategies employed to counteract discrimination and integrate into North American societies.

Vendome Cafe, 305 Yonge Street, 17th May, 1922. During the Toronto anti-Greek riots, Yonge Street became a chaotic scene, with mobs of thousands targeting Greek-owned businesses. Windows were smashed, storefronts looted, and property destroyed amidst violent clashes. The street, usually a bustling commercial hub, was overtaken by disorder, reflecting the intense xenophobia and racial tensions of the time.

City of Toronto Archives.

https://www.heritagetoronto.org/explore/greek-riots-yonge-memory/

Last Zeppelin bombing raid, 5^th August 1918

The last Zeppelin raid on Britain took place on 5 August 1918, marking the end of a long series of airship bombardments that had begun in 1915.

On this occasion, four German Zeppelins set their sights on targets in the Midlands and the North of England.

These airships, massive and vulnerable to enemy fire, had been a part of Germany’s strategic bombing campaign during the First World War, although their effectiveness had been increasingly questioned due to the development of more advanced aircraft and defensive tactics.

Zepellin attack on the UK were widespread. On the 2nd May 1916, Zeppelin L20 began its second bombing raid on Britain with the intention of attacking factories and railways in Middlesborough, Stockton-on-Tees and Hartlepool, and targeting enemy warships near Edinburgh. However, engine problems and strong winds led the airship to veer off course. High winds blew her out into the North Sea and to neutral Norway where she crash landed into Hafrsfjord near Stavanger.

Hans Henriksen / Stavanger City Archive.

https://www.photogra-fix.com/post/2018/05/06/air-raids-of-ww1-zeppelins-in-colour

...caught fire and crashed, killing everyone aboard...

Peter Strasser, commander of the Imperial German Navy's Zeppelin force during the First World War, led airship bombing campaigns over Britain, shaping early strategic aerial warfare tactics.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Strasser

The Zeppelins reached the British coast just before dusk and were first spotted by the Leman Tail lightship 30 miles north-east of Happisburgh at 8:10 p.m.

However, the defending British aircraft were not alerted until 8:50 p.m. Two British fighters intercepted the newest Zeppelin, L 70, which was carrying Peter Strasser, the Führer der Luftschiffe of the German Imperial Navy, as an observer.

Despite thick cloud cover, the British pilots managed to shoot down L 70, which caught fire and crashed, killing everyone aboard.

This marked the death of Strasser, the commander behind the Zeppelin bombing campaigns, during an air raid. Pilots Egbert Cadbury and Robert Leckie, flying a DH.4, were credited with the victory.

This map shows the locations and dates of all the bombing raids on London by Zeppelins during the First World War. The Zeppelin raids on London during World War I caused extensive damage to buildings, homes, and infrastructure. Bombs destroyed entire streets, killing and injuring civilians. Iconic landmarks were threatened, and fires frequently broke out. The attacks disrupted daily life, left thousands homeless, and highlighted the vulnerability of urban centers to aerial bombardment.

https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-5786355/How-Germanys-World-War-Zeppelin-raids-threatened-London.html

Damage in the yard of the home of vet and blacksmith Mr T.H. Walden in East Street off Albert Street, King’s Lynn, following a Zeppelin raid which took place on 19th January 1915. Despite the huge amount of damage caused by the bomb, the whole family - mother, father and three children - escaped with their lives. Next door, however, three of the four occupants suffered injury but only one needed hospital treatment. The Zeppelin raids instilled widespread fear among British civilians during World War I, as airships bombed cities indiscriminately. The attacks caused significant casualties, property damage, and psychological distress, disrupting daily life. Civilians built shelters, enforced blackout measures, and improved air defenses, marking a new era of warfare targeting the home front.

Ian Castle, ‘Zeppelin Onslaught’

H.D. Girdwood, courtesy of the British Library.

https://www.photogra-fix.com/post/2018/05/06/air-raids-of-ww1-zeppelins-in-colour

...invaluable technical data...

The remaining Zeppelins dropped their bombs blindly, relying on radio bearings for navigational information.

However, none of the bombs hit their intended targets, and they fell harmlessly into the sea.

An effort was made to salvage the wreckage of L 70, and much of its structure was recovered, providing the British with invaluable technical data on Zeppelin design and capabilities.

The bodies of the crew members were buried at sea.This final raid illustrated the obsolescence of the Zeppelin as an effective strategic weapon.

The vulnerability of the airships to aircraft interception and the technological advancements in aerial warfare contributed to the decline of Zeppelin raids.

A fund launched during the bombing campaign to support victims of the raids, paying compensation to families of those who lost loved ones and to those injured or who lost their homes or property in the attacks.

https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-5786355/How-Germanys-World-War-Zeppelin-raids-threatened-London.html

An ominous sight: A huge Zeppelin passing over a field full of sheep. The original caption to this photograph read: "These great dirigible airships, hundreds of feet long, were invented and perfected by the aged Count Zeppelin. They are effective within a range of one thousand miles. The German Empire has unquestionably surpassed all its rivals in Europe in the thorough application of the inventions of modern science to the making of war."

German Zeppelins were rigid airships powered by multiple engines, typically Maybachs, and filled with hydrogen for lift. Constructed with a duralumin frame, they featured a lightweight outer skin. Zeppelins had bomb bays and machine guns for defense. Their high-altitude capabilities made them effective for reconnaissance and bombing raids.

https://greatwar.nl/kleur/zeppelin.html

...significantly influence future air bombing tactics...

Report of a Zeppelin raid reported by Major General Ferrier, Commander Humber Defences, 1915.

(AIR 1/569/16/15/142/A)

https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/zeppelin-raids/source-1/

The lessons learned from these attacks would significantly influence future air bombing tactics and doctrines, particularly in the development of more accurate and efficient bombing methods.

The ability of the British to down the L 70 demonstrated the increasing sophistication of defensive measures, and the technical insights gained from the wreckage would later inform the design of more advanced military aircraft.

In the years following the war, the lessons of the Zeppelin campaigns played a pivotal role in shaping the future of strategic bombing, leading to a shift towards faster, more manoeuvrable bombers with greater accuracy and payload capacity.

One of the most infamous disasters ever captured on camera: The Hindenburg disaster of 1937 highlighted the vulnerabilities of zeppelins, especially their reliance on flammable hydrogen gas. The catastrophic fire, caused by an ignition source, destroyed the airship in minutes, killing 36 people. This tragic event underscored zeppelins’ susceptibility to incendiary attacks and harsh conditions, diminishing their viability as military assets. During wartime, these weaknesses were exploited by anti-aircraft guns and fighter planes, proving that zeppelins were impractical for sustained military operations in modern warfare.

https://www.airships.net/blog/colorized-hindenburg-disaster-photograph/

Launch of the Hundred Days Offensive, 8^th August 1918

The Hundred Days Offensive, which lasted from the 8th August to the 11th November 1918, marked the final phase of the First World War.

It was a series of Allied counteroffensives that ultimately led to the collapse of the German Empire and the armistice.

It was a decisive period in the war, reversing the strategic advantage that the Central Powers had held earlier in the conflict.

Allied gains in late 1918. During the Hundred Days Offensive of 1918, the Allies recaptured vast territories, including key positions such as the Hindenburg Line. Over 200,000 prisoners and extensive supplies were seized. The offensive liberated northern France and Belgium, forcing German retreat and ending the war, solidifying the Allies' decisive strategic and territorial gains.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundred_Days_Offensive#/media/File:Western_front_1918_allied.jpg

...led to a significant breakthrough...

The offensive began with the Battle of Amiens on 8 August 1918, a coordinated assault led by the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) under General Sir Douglas Haig, along with French and Canadian troops.

This attack surprised the Germans and led to a significant breakthrough, with Allied forces exploiting the breach and pushing back the German lines.

This battle is often regarded as a turning point in the war, as it demonstrated the effectiveness of modern warfare tactics, including the use of combined arms (infantry, artillery, tanks, and air support) and effective coordination between Allied forces.

...and recapturing significant territory...

Following Amiens, the Allies continued their advances along multiple fronts, breaking through German defenses and recapturing significant territory.

The German army, which had been weakened by internal unrest, poor morale, and the strain of continuous warfare, began to retreat.

The Allies launched a series of offensives, including the battles of Albert, the Hindenburg Line, and the final push towards the Belgian and French borders.

The Allies also exploited the disarray within the German lines, effectively encircling enemy forces and forcing them into retreat.

Canadian infantry and a British tanker studying a captured German anti-tank rifle after the Battle of Amiens, August 1918. The Battle of Amiens, fought from 8–11 August 1918, marked a pivotal turning point in the First World War. Led by the British, French, Canadian, and Australian forces, the offensive achieved a rapid breakthrough against German lines, utilizing innovative tactics like combined arms warfare with tanks, artillery, and aircraft. The battle inflicted heavy losses on the Germans, breaking their morale and initiating the Hundred Days Offensive, ultimately leading to the German Empire’s collapse and the war’s end.

https://www.reddit.com/r/WWIpics/comments/11f2f2l/colorized_photo_of_canadian_infantry_and_a/

...exhausted and unable to maintain the fight...

By the 11th November 1918, the Germans were exhausted and unable to maintain the fight. The armistice was signed, bringing an end to the war.

The Hundred Days Offensive showcased the effectiveness of coordinated military strategy, the importance of air and mechanized warfare, and the vital role of Allied unity in defeating the Central Powers.

The offensive also set the stage for the post-war settlement, reshaping the political and military landscape of Europe.

The aftermath of the Battle of Amiens marked the beginning of the Hundred Days Offensive, a relentless Allied advance from August to November 1918. The German army, weakened by heavy losses and low morale, retreated under continuous pressure. The Allies recaptured key territory, breaking through the Hindenburg Line. By the 11th November, German forces were in disarray, leading to the armistice and the war’s end.

Launch of the Malleson mission, 11th August 1918

The Malleson Mission, or British intervention in Transcaspia, was a military action conducted between August 1918 and April 1919 by a small force of British Indian troops under General Wilfrid Malleson, aimed at countering Bolshevik and Central Power influences in Russian Turkestan (modern Turkmenistan).

The intervention was a part of the broader Allied efforts during the Russian Civil War, with the British motivated by strategic concerns over the proximity of the region to British India and Persia.

Map of Turkestan, Published in Oriental Rugs, Antique and Modern by WA Hawley, 1922. In 1918, Turkestan was a region in turmoil, caught in the chaos of the Russian Civil War. Competing factions, including Bolsheviks, White Russians, and local anti-communist groups, vied for control. Strategic interests from foreign powers, like Britain, further complicated the situation, aiming to curb Bolshevik and Central Power influence near British India.

...multiple factions, including Bolshevik forces in Tashkent, fighting for control...

Major-General Sir Wilfrid Malleson was a senior officer in the British Indian Army who led a mission to Turkestan during the Russian Civil War.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilfrid_Malleson

The area was in turmoil due to the Russian Civil War, with multiple factions, including Bolshevik forces in Tashkent, fighting for control.

Amidst this chaos, the British sought to prevent German and Turkish influence, as well as Bolshevik expansion, from threatening British interests.

Malleson’s mission was to combat German and Turkish propaganda and assist anti-Bolshevik groups, particularly the Transcaspian Government, which had seized power in Ashgabat.

The mission's first engagement occurred on 12 August 1918, when Malleson’s forces, alongside local Transcaspian rebels, defended Bairam Ali against a Bolshevik attack.

Although the defense was overwhelmed, British machine gunners inflicted significant casualties.

Turkestan District 5 Rouble note, 1918. During the Malleson Mission in 1918, Turkestan's currency reflected the region's instability, with competing factions issuing their own notes. The Bolsheviks introduced ruble-based currencies, while anti-Bolshevik forces used Tsarist-era or locally minted currencies. This fragmented monetary system highlighted the economic chaos amid political upheaval and shifting control in the region.

https://katzauction.com/lot/691766

...internal struggles within the Transcaspian government...

Following this, Malleson launched a series of skirmishes and battles, including at Kaka and Dushak, where the British and their allies achieved some successes, despite facing challenges with unreliable local forces.

By late 1918, internal struggles within the Transcaspian government led to its resignation, and the region saw increased involvement from White Russian forces.

However, with the end of the First World War and the absence of a continued German threat, Malleson began planning a British withdrawal.

In March 1919, after successfully deceiving the Bolsheviks into thinking the retreat was part of a larger operation, British forces withdrew, leaving the Transcaspian region vulnerable. The Bolsheviks eventually regained control of the area by 1920.

"Who doesn’t work doesn’t eat" - Soviet propaganda poster from Tashkent, Ubekistan 1920. After the Malleson Mission ended in 1919, Soviet influence in Turkestan expanded significantly, bolstered by the Red Army's consolidation of power. The Soviets used propaganda to promote communist ideology, portraying themselves as liberators of oppressed workers and peasants. Schools, publications, and local councils were utilized to disseminate Marxist ideas, undermining traditional power structures. The Bolsheviks targeted Islamic clergy and local elites, branding them as enemies of progress, while enforcing collectivization and industrialization to integrate Turkestan into the Soviet system.

https://eurasianet.org/central-asia-propaganda-show-spotlights-soviet-push-in-muslim-lands

The Thule Society established, 18^th August 1918

The Thule Society was a German occultist and Völkisch group founded in Munich shortly after the First World War, originally called the Studiengruppe für Germanisches Altertum (Study Group for Germanic Antiquity).

Its name came from the mythical northern land of Thule, described in Greek legend as the farthest part of the known world.

The Thule Society is best known for its role in sponsoring the Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (DAP), or German Workers' Party, which Adolf Hitler would later transform into the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP), or the Nazi Party.

Letterhead of the Thule Society 1919. The Thule Society was a German occultist and nationalist group, active after the First World War, promoting anti-Semitic ideologies and influencing early Nazi movements, including the formation of the German Workers' Party.

City Archives Munich, BuR-1659-1-002a; cutout

https://www.historisches-lexikon-bayerns.de/Lexikon/Thule-Gesellschaft,_1918-1933

...influenced Nazi ideology...

Rudolf von Sebottendorff, an occultist and founder of the Thule Society, influenced German nationalist and esoteric movements, blending mysticism with Aryan ideology, which later may have inspired elements of Nazi thought (althougth his overall influence is unclear and disputed).

https://www.historisches-lexikon-bayerns.de/Lexikon/Thule-Gesellschaft,_1918-1933

The group, originally led by Walter Nauhaus, had ties to the Germanenorden, a secret society, and became closely associated with Rudolf von Sebottendorff, an occultist who used the Thule Society as a front for his Bavarian branch of the Germanenorden Walvater.

The Thule Society emphasized Aryan racial purity, positioning Aryans as a superior race while promoting hostility toward Jews and communists.

Members were required to sign a "blood declaration of faith," affirming the absence of Jewish or non-Aryan ancestry in their lineage.

The society propagated theories of Aryan origins and racial superiority, blending mysticism and pseudoscience to support its beliefs.

These ideas, later adopted and amplified by the Nazi Party, became a cornerstone of Nazi racial ideology.

Reich Party Congress, Nuremburg, Germany, 1938. The Thule Society's emphasis on Aryan supremacy deeply influenced early Nazi ideology. Focused on myths of Aryan origins and racial purity, it propagated ideas of a superior "master race." These beliefs aligned with Nazi views, fueling anti-Semitism and a disdain for perceived racial "inferiors." While the society dissolved as the Nazis rose to power, its teachings endured, shaping the party’s racial policies, propaganda, and pseudo-historical narratives that justified their pursuit of racial hierarchy and genocide. Events such as the Reich Congress were opportunities for the Nazis to showcase their views and ideals.

Hugo Jaeger/Life Pictures/Shutterstock

https://www.life.com/history/a-brutal-pageantry-the-third-reichs-myth-making-machinery-in-color/

...marking the start of Hitler’s rise to power...

In 1918, the Thule Society purchased the Münchener Beobachter newspaper, which later became the Völkischer Beobachter, the Nazi Party's official publication.

Anton Drexler, a key figure in the DAP, maintained links with the Thule Society, and Adolf Hitler joined the DAP in 1919.

By 1920, the DAP was rebranded as the NSDAP, marking the start of Hitler’s rise to power.

Although Hitler himself never attended Thule meetings, members like Rudolf Hess and Hans Frank were involved.

The Thule Society, though dissolved in the 1920s, continued to influence Nazi Germany through ideas adopted by figures like Alfred Rosenberg and Heinrich Himmler, the latter of whom had a strong interest in mysticism and occultism.

However, organizations like Freemasons, esoteric groups, and some occult practitioners were banned or persecuted under Nazi rule. The regime sought to monopolize ideological and spiritual authority, leaving no room for competing worldviews.

Despite the Nazis' suppression of occult groups, the Thule Society’s racial and mystical ideas contributed to Nazi ideology, particularly within Himmler's SS.

Anton Drexler, a German nationalist and founder of the German Workers' Party, which later became the National Socialist German Workers' Party, better known as the Nazi Party. He was loosely associated with the Thule Society, a secretive group promoting anti-Semitic and nationalist ideologies in post-First World War Germany.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_Drexler

Himmler with officers of the Waffen-SS inspect the stone quarry at Mauthausen Concentration Camp. The Thule Society had indirect but notable influence on Heinrich Himmler and the SS. Its ideology, centered on Aryan racial superiority, esoteric mysticism, and the occult, resonated with Himmler, who sought to intertwine these beliefs with SS practices. Himmler adopted concepts such as racial purity and Aryan ancestry, expanding them into SS doctrine. Although the Thule Society itself faded, its ideas contributed to the pseudo-historical and mystical framework underpinning the SS, including its obsession with heritage and symbolism.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_192-014,_KZ_Mauthausen,_Besuch_Heinrich_Himmler_Recolored.jpg

Bessarabian Peasants' Party was established, 23^rd August 1918

The Bessarabian Peasants' Party (also known as the Moldavian National Democratic Party) was an agrarian political party active in the Kingdom of Romania, particularly in the region of Bessarabia (now part of Moldova).

Formed in August 1918, the party emerged from various factions that had existed within the Moldavian Democratic Republic and was primarily motivated by the shared opposition to Bolshevik Russia and communism.

Its founding leaders, Pan Halippa and Ion Inculeț, represented the party's right and left wings, respectively, with Ion Pelivan serving as the co-chair.

The Bessarabian Peasants' Party played a prominent role in Bessarabia after the region's formal union with Romania in 1918.

In the 1919 election, the PȚB achieved significant success, securing the third-largest number of seats in Greater Romania, thereby becoming a key partner in the Romanian government.

Ion Pelivan was one of the co-founders of the Bessarabian Peasant's Party and served as its last President in 1923.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion_Pelivan

Celebrations for the Great Union of Romania, 1st December 1918. The Great Union of Romania marked the unification of Romanian-speaking territories, including Bessarabia. In March 1918, Bessarabia declared its union with Romania following the collapse of the Russian Empire and Bolshevik advances. This decision was ratified by the Romanian parliament, integrating Bessarabia into the newly enlarged Romanian state. The union was formalized in the Treaty of Paris (1920) and symbolized a pivotal moment in Romania’s history, reflecting aspirations for national unity and cultural cohesion.

https://www.ucl.ac.uk/european-institute/news/2018/apr/romania-creating-nation-state-1918-and-beyond

...marked its influence in national politics...

The party’s alliance with the Parliamentary Bloc, which was formed around the Romanian National Party, marked its influence in national politics.

However, internal divisions and the growing influence of the People's Party led to the collapse of the government coalition, and by the 1920 elections, the PȚB had lost several chapters.

Sfatul Țării Palace is tied to the Bessarabian Peasants' Party through its historical role as the venue for Sfatul Țării, which declared Bessarabia's union with Romania in 1918. The party, emerging later, drew inspiration from the council's legacy, advocating for Bessarabian autonomy and agrarian reforms in the interwar period.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldavian_Democratic_Republic

...the dominant political force...

Despite these challenges, the Bessarabian Peasants' Party maintained a strong presence in Bessarabia, where it was the dominant political force. The party openly advocated for decentralization and regional autonomy, gaining further support in the region.

By 1921, the PȚB became divided over its future, with Halippa and his faction supporting a merger with Ion Mihalache's Peasants' Party and Constantin Stere's independent agrarian faction. Halippa’s supporters left the PȚB, and Inculeț reclaimed the party leadership.

In 1922, Inculeț formed an alliance with the governing National Liberals. The PȚB, after narrowly defeating Halippa and Stere in the 1922 elections, was once again co-opted into the government.

By early 1923, Inculeț and his followers joined the National Liberal Party, leaving the remaining faction to merge with the Romanian National Party in September.

This marked the end of the Bessarabian Peasants' Party as a significant political force in Romanian politics.

The administrative map of Greater Romania in 1930. Bessarabia, a historical region in Eastern Europe, lies between the Prut and Dniester rivers, encompassing parts of present-day Moldova and Ukraine. Historically contested, it was part of the Russian Empire before joining Romania in 1918. Its inclusion highlighted Romania’s ambition to unite all Romanian-speaking territories. However, it faced significant ethnic diversity, including Ukrainians, Jews, and Russians. Soviet annexation in 1940 and subsequent territorial disputes shaped its geopolitical significance within Romania, reflecting broader regional tensions in the 20th century.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Moldova

Communist Party of Finland established, 29^th August 1918

The Communist Party of Finland (SKP) was a political party active in Finland, operating as a section of Comintern and remaining illegal until 1944.

It was founded in Moscow in 1918 by Finnish exiles following the Finnish Civil War, with the goal of promoting communism in Finland. Initially, the SKP was banned by the Finnish state, and its members were often imprisoned.

As a result, the party refrained from participating in elections under its official name, instead utilizing front organizations like the Socialist Workers' Party of Finland and the Socialist Electoral Organisation of Workers and Smallholders, both of which were also banned.

Logo of the Communist Party of Finland

https://m.famousfix.com/list/1918-establishments-in-finland

Four members of the Finnish Red guard taking a group photo inside Augusta Olssons photo studio in Uusikaupunki, Finland, 1918. In the 1918 Finnish Civil War soldiers like these formed the army of Red Finland, peaked at between 90,000 and 120,000 during the course of the conflict. The Communist Party of Finland (SKP) was founded by Red Finnish exiles who had fled to Soviet Russia after being defeated by the Finnish White Guards during the Civil War.

https://www.instagram.com/julius.colorization/?hl=en

An open letter to Lenin from the Finnish Communist Party, 1918.

https://wdc.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/russian/id/5496

...saw the SKP's greatest influence...

In 1944, the SKP reorganized under the Finnish People's Democratic League (SKDL), which became an umbrella group for the radical left.

The SKP played a significant role in this new formation, though it always included a significant minority of non-communist socialists.

The post-Second World War period, particularly during the Cold War, saw the SKP's greatest influence.

From 1944 to 1979, the SKP enjoyed considerable support, with its influence peaking in the 1960s when party membership reached approximately 40,000.

Despite this success, Finland never had a communist Prime Minister or President, and the SKP's main rival for leadership of the left-wing political space was the Social Democratic Party of Finland (SDP).

Labour Day march of the Communist Party of Finland on Kaivokatu in Helsinki on the 1st May 1960. During the 1960s, the Communist Party of Finland (CPF) was a significant political force, advocating socialist policies and aligning with the Soviet Union. Despite internal splits between moderates and hardliners, it maintained strong electoral support, particularly through the Finnish People's Democratic League, influencing Finland's labor movements and leftist political landscape.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Finland

...the party's Eurocommunist majority condemned Soviet intervention...

The SKP received substantial financial backing from the Soviet Union during the Cold War.

Internally, the party was divided between Eurocommunist and pro-Soviet factions, with the pro-Soviet wing led by Taisto Sinisalo, referred to as "Taistoists."

These internal divisions intensified after the Prague Spring of 1968, when the party's Eurocommunist majority condemned Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia, while the Taistoist minority supported the Soviet Union.

Taisto Sinisalo (1926-2002) was a Finnish communist politician, leader of the pro-Soviet faction within the Communist Party of Finland, and vice chairman of the party from 1970 to 1982.

https://uppslagsverket.fi/sv/view-170045-SinisaloTaisto

The Prague Spring, 1968. Near Wenceslas Square, on Vinohradska Street, Soviet troops try to shut down any news broadcasts of the invasion. As troops arrive to shut the station down, the defiant crowds their support for the broadcasters. The Finnish SKP (Socialist Workers' Party) was inspired by the Prague Spring, leading to increased calls for reform and democratization within the party, challenging the existing Soviet-aligned leadership and sparking internal debates about the future direction of communism in Finland.

https://www.rferl.org/a/prague-1968-invasion-photographer/29430254.html

...leading to internal conflicts and financial bankruptcy...

A 2016 SKP poster promoting May Day celebrations, which commemorates the struggle for workers' rights and celebrates International Workers' Day

https://skp.fi/asiakirjagalleria/skpn-vappujuliste-2016

The SKP's influence declined after the fall of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s, leading to internal conflicts and financial bankruptcy. Many members left to form the Left Alliance in 1990.

The remaining Taistoists reorganized into the Communist Party of Finland (Unity), which later became the Communist Party of Finland in 1997.

However, it failed to regain the former party's parliamentary representation.

In recent years, the party's support has dwindled, with election results showing minimal gains, including just 0.3% of the vote in the 2011 elections.

Present day Finnish communists at a May Day rally in Finland. The Communist Party of Finland (SKP), founded in 1918 during Finland's Civil War, originally sought to establish a Soviet-style government, aligning closely with Moscow. Today, the SKP is a minor party focused on social justice, workers' rights, and environmental issues, reflecting a modernized and democratic approach. Unlike its revolutionary origins, the current SKP emphasizes peaceful activism and operates in a Finland now deeply integrated into Western institutions, highlighting a stark contrast to its radical beginnings.

https://peoplesdispatch.org/2021/02/03/finland-must-break-away-from-the-eus-common-security-and-defense-policy/

Lenin survives assassination, 30^th August 1918

On August 30, 1918, Vladimir Lenin, the leader of Soviet Russia, was leaving the Hammer and Sickle arms factory in southern Moscow when he was targeted by Fanny Kaplan, a member of the Socialist Revolutionary Party.

Kaplan, a staunch opponent of Lenin’s policies, called out to him as he exited the factory. When Lenin turned toward her, she fired three shots with an FN M1900 pistol.

One bullet grazed his coat, while the other two struck him—one passing through his neck, puncturing part of his left lung, and lodging near his right collarbone, while the second bullet embedded itself in his left shoulder.

Lenin was immediately rushed back to the Kremlin, where he was placed under the care of doctors.

Fearing that more assassination attempts might be forthcoming, Lenin refused to leave the security of the Kremlin to seek medical treatment at a hospital.

The doctors who attended him were unable to remove the bullets, as the surgery required could only be performed in a hospital.

Vladimir Lenin: The assassination attempt on Lenin in 1918 by Fanny Kaplan stemmed from her opposition to Bolshevik policies, particularly the dissolution of the Constituent Assembly and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which angered Socialist Revolutionaries.

https://klimbim2014.wordpress.com/

Fanny Kaplan's FN 1900 pistol, used in the attempted assassination of Vladimir Lenin on the 30th August, 1918.. The Belgian-made FN Model 1900 semi-automatic pistol was a compact firearm, chambered for the .32 ACP cartridge, and was popular in the early 20th century for its reliability and ease of concealment. Kaplan fired three shots at Lenin, two of which struck him, leading to severe injuries that impacted his health until his death in 1924.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_attempts_on_Vladimir_Lenin

...Lenin’s overall health began to deteriorate...

After attempting to assassinate Lenin, Fanny Kaplan was arrested, interrogated, and executed by the Cheka on the 3rd September, 1918. Her actions intensified Soviet repression against political opponents during the Red Terror.

https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/215174075/fanny_haimovna-kaplan

Despite the severity of his injuries, Lenin managed to survive the attempt on his life. However, the shooting had lasting consequences for his health.

Although he survived the immediate danger, the wounds caused by the bullets never fully healed, and Lenin’s overall health began to deteriorate.

It has been speculated that the attack contributed to the strokes that incapacitated him in later years, leading to his eventual death in 1924.

The assassination attempt marked a pivotal moment in Soviet history, highlighting the intense opposition Lenin faced during the Russian Revolution.

A painting by the artist P. P. Baloyusov, depictingfFanya Kaplan's attempt to kill Lenin. Following Fanny Kaplan's attempted assassination of Lenin on August 30, 1918, Lenin was severely wounded but survived. The attack heightened tensions in Soviet Russia, triggering the Red Terror, a brutal campaign of repression against perceived enemies of the Bolsheviks. Kaplan was swiftly interrogated and executed by the Cheka three days later.

https://www.macgregorishistory.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/5.-The-Assassination-attempt-on-Lenin-1918.pdf

National German-American Alliance dissolved, 31^st August 1918

The National German-American Alliance (NGAA), founded in 1901, was an organization that represented the interests of German-Americans in the United States.

Its primary goal was to advocate for the cultural, social, and political rights of the German-American community, especially during a time of growing anti-German sentiment in the U.S.

A Newspaper cartoon commenting on the demise of the National German-American Alliance. In 1918, U.S. media largely supported the dissolution of the National German-American Alliance, reflecting heightened anti-German sentiment during the First World War. Newspapers framed the organization as unpatriotic, accusing it of promoting German propaganda and divided loyalties. Its disbandment symbolized the growing pressure on German-American communities to prove their American allegiance.

https://nara.getarchive.net/media/untitled-59038f

...actively opposed U.S. entry into the First World War...

The sinking of the Lusitania in 1915, which killed 128 Americans, severely damaged US-German relations. The attack, attributed to a German U-boat, fueled anti-German sentiment and contributed to America's entry into the Second World War.

https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/stories/lusitania-100-years-later-never-forget

The alliance sought to preserve German heritage and promote the positive contributions of German-Americans to American society.

It also worked to counter negative stereotypes of Germans, which were increasingly prevalent as tensions between Germany and the United States escalated during the First World War.

The NGAA's activities included lobbying against discrimination, supporting German-language schools, and promoting German culture through cultural events and publications.

The organization also actively opposed U.S. entry into the First World War, viewing it as a conflict that was largely driven by British and French interests.

However, as the war progressed and anti-German sentiment reached a peak, the alliance found itself increasingly isolated and under attack.

In 1917, following the United States’ entry into the war, the NGAA faced mounting pressure from the government and the public to disband.

The RMS Lusitania: The sinking of the Lusitania on the 7th May 1915, by German U-boat U-20 killed nearly 1,200 people, including 128 Americans. This atrocity outraged the U.S. public, escalating anti-German sentiment and fueling tensions between the U.S. and Germany. The tragedy contributed to increased scrutiny of the National German-American Alliance, already viewed with suspicion for its ties to Germany. By 1918, growing anti-German hysteria and accusations of disloyalty led to the Alliance's dissolution amid declining public support.

https://www.megamilitary.com/military-myths-mysteries-legends-curiosities/the-secret-cargo-of-the-rms-lusitania-7th-may-1915

...widespread anti-German hysteria...

The organization, which had been closely associated with German heritage, became a target of suspicion and distrust.

German-Americans, who had once enjoyed a strong and vibrant community presence, were now viewed with suspicion as potential sympathizers to the German enemy.

The NGAA was officially dissolved in August 1918, a direct result of this intense pressure and the widespread anti-German hysteria during the war.

The organization’s dissolution marked the end of an era for German-American advocacy in the U.S.

During the war, the German-American community faced significant challenges, including forced assimilation, cultural suppression, and discrimination, as the country rallied against the perceived threat of German influence.

The frenzy of feeling against the Germans during the First World War impacted on brewers - most of whom were of German extraction.

https://westervillelibrary.org/antisaloon-patriotism/

US Soldiers during the First World War. When U.S. soldiers entered the conflict in 1917, anti-German sentiment surged across the USA. The National German-American Alliance, once a prominent organization advocating for German cultural preservation, became a target of suspicion. Many Americans viewed the Alliance as unpatriotic, accusing it of sympathizing with Germany. This mistrust intensified with the war, and the Alliance faced increasing criticism and political pressure. By 1918, public hostility and government action led to its dissolution, symbolizing rising anti-German fervor.

https://www.warhistoryonline.com/instant-articles/there-us-army-ww1-footage-in-color.html

Conclusion

The events of August 1918, from political upheaval to violent ethnic strife, had profound implications for Europe and the world during the 1920s and 1930s, reflecting the global turbulence of the time.

The establishment of the Provisional Military Dictatorship in Mughan and the subsequent failure of anti-communist regimes in Azerbaijan exemplified the widespread instability and resistance to Bolshevik influence that characterized the post- First World War period.

Similarly, the Toronto anti-Greek riots highlighted the rising tide of nationalism, ethnic tension, and xenophobia in the aftermath of the war, as immigrant communities were often scapegoated for the struggles of the period.

The 1918 Toronto anti-Greek riots reflected growing nationalism and xenophobia, fueled by economic tensions and ethnic scapegoating. This event echoed rising prejudice against immigrants amid post-war societal upheaval.

https://www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=2056276737750240&set=pcb.2056276864416894

Chinese Chekists (aligned with Bolshevik ideology and trained by the Soviet Union to support the spread of communism and assist in the establishment of a Soviet-style government in China) executing an Orthodox priest in Moscow, White Russian anti-Bolshevik propaganda poster, 1920. In 1918, Bolshevism faced widespread antipathy in Eastern Europe and Asia, as many nations feared the spread of communist ideology. Former empires, like the Austro-Hungarian and Russian Empires, saw Bolshevik revolutionaries as a destabilizing force, prompting counter-revolutionary movements and foreign interventions, including Allied support for anti-Bolshevik factions.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Terror

...the shifting landscape of military technology...

Meanwhile, military events such as the final Zeppelin bombing raid and the Hundred Days Offensive shaped both the immediate conclusion of the First World War and the future of warfare.

The decline of Zeppelin raids underscored the shifting landscape of military technology, while the Allied successes in the Hundred Days Offensive hastened the collapse of the German Empire and set the stage for the post-war settlement that would redraw the political map of Europe.

These military developments reflected the evolving strategies of modern warfare and were instrumental in shaping future military doctrines.

In August 1918, as the First World War neared its end, the post-war settlements began taking shape, with key negotiations leading to significant territorial changes in Europe. The collapse of the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian empires resulted in new states, such as Czechoslovakia and Poland, and redrawn borders. The Paris Peace Conference in 1919 would formalise these changes, but the decisions made in 1918 laid the groundwork for territorial disputes and future instability, influencing Europe’s political landscape for decades.

https://www.natgeomaps.com/hm-1921-of-europe-showing-the-countries-established-by-the-peace-conference-of-paris

...harbingers of the intense political volatility...

Political movements like the founding of the Bessarabian Peasants' Party and the Communist Party of Finland were harbingers of the intense political volatility that would characterize Europe in the interwar years.

The rise of far-right ideologies, epitomized by the Thule Society, also foreshadowed the rise of fascism in the 1920s and 1930s, culminating in the Nazi regime in Germany.

The widespread dissolution of organizations like the National German-American Alliance exemplified the era’s cultural and political suppression, as the war’s aftermath left many communities struggling to assert their identity amidst growing nationalism.

In sum, the interconnected events of August 1918 played a crucial role in shaping the tumultuous decades that followed, contributing to the political, social, and military developments that would define Europe and the world in the 1920s and 1930s.

A Thule Society Lapel Badge. In the 1920s and 1930s, the Thule Society influenced Nazi ideology through its emphasis on Aryan racial purity, antisemitism, and mysticism, shaping key figures like Heinrich Himmler and promoting Nazi nationalism.

https://www.thirdreicharts.com/thule-society-lapel-badge

Rise of the Nazi's: The Hundred Days Offensive would help usher in the collapse of Germany in the First World War, fueling widespread disillusionment in Germany. The sudden defeat, coupled with the Treaty of Versailles, led to resentment and humiliation among Germans. This atmosphere of instability allowed right-wing ideologies, such as those espoused by the Nazis, to gain traction. The Nazis capitalized on the nationalistic and anti-democratic sentiments, using the "stab-in-the-back" myth to blame Jews and communists for Germany's defeat, thus promoting their radical agenda.

https://jweekly.com/2024/06/10/is-netflixs-new-hitler-docuseries-worth-watching/

Colourisers

Sources:

https://www.canadiancolour.ca/2016/02/04/field-marshal-douglas-haig-1st-earl-haig-toronto-july-24-1925/haig/

https://www.reddit.com/r/WWIpics/comments/11f2f2l/colorized_photo_of_canadian_infantry_and_a/

1918: spring offensive and advance to victory, URL: https://nzhistory.govt.nz/war/western-front-1918, (Manatū Taonga — Ministry for Culture and Heritage), updated 28-May-2024

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundred_Days_Offensive#/media/File:Western_front_1918_allied.jpg

https://www.theworldwar.org/learn/about-wwi/hundred-days-offensive

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilfrid_Malleson

https://ww1.nam.ac.uk/stories/captain-gerald-uloth/

https://www.heritagetoronto.org/explore/greek-riots-yonge-memory/

Toronto Public Library.

https://www.heritagetoronto.org/explore/greek-riots-yonge-memory/

Punch Magazine, November 24, 1915. Illustration by John Partridge. Courtesy of the Heidelberg University Library.

https://www.tanea.gr/2018/09/12/english-edition/100-years-later-torontos-forgotten-anti-greek-riots-reconsidered/

https://katzauction.com/lot/691766

https://eurasianet.org/central-asia-propaganda-show-spotlights-soviet-push-in-muslim-lands

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughan_clashes