The forgotten war
The World stumbles into a second global conflict
Despite all the pain and suffering. Despite everything that had – or should have – been learnt, once again, Europe found itself plunged into war.
On the 1st of September 1939, German forces acting on orders from Hitler, invaded its neighbour – the Republic of Poland.
The conflict would take a terrible toll on Poland and 6 million of its people would die before the end of the war.
Poland lost approximately a fifth of its population during the conflict.
Timeline of the German Invasion of Poland
Prior to this, the world had seen the inexorable rise of Adolf Hitler as his Nazi Germany had steadily and ominously grown in power and confidence, swallowing up first a willing Austria and then adding an unfortunate Czechoslovakia.
It seemed only a matter of time before he would act again yet the countries of Europe seemed powerless to act – either looking the other way or stalling for time.
The Topeka Daily Capital, Topeka, Kansas, 1st September 1939. Despite the devastation of the First World War, Europe faced another global conflict just two decades later. The invasion of Poland in 1939 marked the start of the Second World War, as unchecked aggression, unresolved grievances, and failed diplomacy culminated in violence, plunging the world into an even more catastrophic war.
A New Nation State
The Second Polish Republic emerged from the ashes of the First World War and the collapse of the German, Austro-Hungarian, and Russian Empires.
Declared on the 11th November 1918, under the leadership of Józef Piłsudski, Poland regained independence after 123 years of partition. Its creation, while a triumph for Poles, sowed seeds of tension that would contribute to the Second World War.
The Treaty of Versailles (1919) solidified Poland's status but left key issues unresolved.
The establishment of the Polish Corridor, granting Poland access to the Baltic Sea, separated East Prussia from mainland Germany and created a flashpoint for German resentment.
The Free City of Danzig (modern Gdańsk), administered under the League of Nations, became another contested zone.
Józef Piłsudski, Poland's leader after its 1918 independence, was a statesman and military strategist. He championed national sovereignty, led the victorious 1920 Battle of Warsaw, and established an authoritarian regime in 1926.
https://historia.fandom.com/pl/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Pi%C5%82sudski
The four military representatives of the Supreme War Council in session at Versailles, 1919, painting by H.A. Olivier. The Treaty of Versailles (1919) re-established Poland's sovereignty after 123 years of partition by neighboring empires. It created the Polish Corridor, granting access to the Baltic Sea, and restored disputed territories. While a triumph for Poles, these provisions fueled German resentment, particularly over territorial losses, contributing to future tensions in Europe.
IWM (Art IWM ART 4214)
https://oldshirburnian.org.uk/the-shirburnian-war-artist-the-treaty-of-versailles/
...created tensions with the Soviet Union...
Ethnographic map of Poland in 1921.
Poland’s borders were shaped through a series of conflicts, including the Polish-Soviet War (1919–1921).
Piłsudski's vision of a federation of Eastern European states clashed with Soviet ambitions, culminating in the Battle of Warsaw (1920), where Poland repelled a Soviet advance.
The Treaty of Riga (1921) established Poland’s eastern frontier but created tensions with the Soviet Union that festered throughout the interwar period.
Internally, Poland faced challenges of uniting diverse regions and populations. By the early 1930s, it was a fragile democracy, with Piłsudski’s 1926 May Coup installing an authoritarian regime.
These internal struggles left Poland ill-prepared for the mounting external threats.
Market traders in Poland, 1930's. Life in 1930s Poland was marked by political instability, economic hardship, and cultural diversity. The authoritarian regime of Józef Piłsudski's successors faced challenges uniting the nation’s diverse ethnic groups. Rural poverty and industrial underdevelopment contrasted with vibrant urban centers like Warsaw, fostering tensions that foreshadowed the turbulence of the Second World War.
https://www.vintag.es/2013/03/color-photographs-of-life-in-poland-1932.html
...central to his grievances...
Germany, under Adolf Hitler after 1933, openly vowed to revise the Versailles settlement.
The Polish Corridor and Danzig became central to his grievances.
Meanwhile, the Soviet Union under Stalin eyed Polish territories lost in 1921.
The Second Polish Republic, caught between two aggressive powers, would soon find itself the victim of their expansionist ambitions, setting the stage for the Second World War.
The final borders layout settled in 1921 after the Polish-Soviet war. The borders between Poland and the Soviet Union, established in the 1921 Treaty of Riga, left the Soviets resentful of territorial losses after the Polish-Soviet War. These lands, including Ukraine and Belarus, were viewed by the USSR as rightful Soviet territory. The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact of 1939 enabled the Soviets to reclaim these areas, justifying their invasion on the 17th September 1939, as a means to "protect" Ukrainians and Belarusians, fulfilling long-held territorial ambitions.
Europe edges towards armageddon
The invasion of Poland in September 1939, which marked the beginning of the Second World War, was preceded by a decade of political manoeuvring, ideological tensions, and aggressive expansionist policies, primarily driven by Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler.
This prelude was shaped by a mix of unresolved post-First World War grievances, shifting alliances, and the appeasement policies of Western democracies.
The Treaty of Versailles (1919) left Germany humiliated and economically devastated, fostering resentment that fueled the rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party.
Among its provisions, the treaty stripped Germany of territory, imposed heavy reparations, and created the Polish Corridor, granting Poland access to the Baltic Sea and severing East Prussia from mainland Germany.
This corridor, alongside the free city of Danzig (Gdańsk), became flashpoints for German irredentism.
Fuhrer of German, Adolf Hitler. The invasion of Poland stemmed from Adolf Hitler’s expansionist ideology and belief in Lebensraum (living space), seeking territorial conquest in Eastern Europe. Fueled by a desire to unite ethnic Germans, overturn the Treaty of Versailles, and secure dominance for the Aryan race, Hitler viewed Poland as a stepping stone for broader ambitions.
https://discover.hubpages.com/
1930's map showing the Territory of the Free City of Danzig. Danzig was a semi-autonomous city-state that existed between 1920 and 1939, consisting of the Baltic Sea port of Danzig and nearly 200 towns and villages in the surrounding areas. Adolf Hitler viewed the Free City of Danzig as a vital symbol of German nationalism and a territorial injustice from the Treaty of Versailles. Demanding its reunification with Germany, Hitler used Danzig’s status and alleged mistreatment of ethnic Germans there as a pretext to justify aggression against Poland, escalating tensions toward war.
...were not robust enough to deter aggressors...
Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski, Polish Prime Minister (15 May 1936 – 30 September 1939)
Wikipedia
Poland itself, re-established after 123 years of partitions, faced numerous challenges.
The young state had tenuous relations with its neighbours, including Germany and the Soviet Union, as well as internal ethnic tensions among its diverse population.
Additionally, Poland’s military and economy were not robust enough to deter aggressors, leaving it vulnerable.
From his ascension to power in 1933, Hitler openly sought to overturn the Versailles Treaty and expand German territory.
His concept of Lebensraum ("living space") aimed at acquiring land in Eastern Europe to provide resources and settlement space for Germans. Poland, situated between Germany and the Soviet Union, was a prime target.
Hitler at a Nazi rally in 1938. Upon gaining power in 1933, Adolf Hitler prioritized overturning the Treaty of Versailles, which he saw as a humiliation to Germany. He launched a massive rearmament program, violating military restrictions, and reintroduced conscription in 1935. Hitler remilitarized the Rhineland in 1936, reclaimed territories like the Saar Basin, and demanded the Sudetenland. By rejecting reparations and denouncing territorial losses, Hitler aimed to restore Germany’s power and expand its borders, laying the groundwork for his aggressive expansionist policies.
https://www.curistoria.com/2015/05/12-impresionantes-fotos-en-color-de-los.html
...emboldened him further...
Throughout the 1930s, Hitler tested the resolve of Western powers through a series of aggressive moves, including rearmament, the remilitarization of the Rhineland (1936), and the Anschluss (annexation of Austria in 1938).
These actions – having met with little resistance from Britain and France - emboldened him further.
Hitler dreamt over conquering Europe and correctly guessed that – to begin with at least – the other European nations would do little to stop him.
His actions in Austria and Czechoslovakia and the relative passivity of countries such as Britain and France had reinforced this idea.
Austrians cheer Adolf Hitler during his 1938 campaign (before the Anschluss) to unite Austria and Germany. The Anschluss of Austria in March 1938 advanced Hitler’s goals of uniting all Germans under the Reich and expanding territory for Lebensraum. It showcased his disregard for international treaties, violating the Treaty of Versailles and St. Germain. The lack of military or diplomatic response from Britain and France emboldened Hitler, reinforcing his belief that Western powers were weak and unwilling to confront aggression. The Anschluss marked a significant step toward the broader goals of Nazi expansionism.
Hugo Jaeger—The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images
https://time.com/3677092/adoring-hitler-color-photos-of-a-tyrant-among-the-crowds/
...harboured his own ambitions...
In the 1930s, Joseph Stalin aimed to expand Soviet influence in Eastern Europe, reclaim territories lost in 1921, and establish communist regimes to create a buffer against potential Western aggression.
https://klimbim2014.wordpress.com/2019/09/23/stalin-%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD-1932/
Joseph Stalin, leader of the Soviet Union, harboured his own ambitions for Eastern Europe. Stalin’s Communist ideology clashed with Nazi Germany’s fascism, but the two powers found common ground in their desire to reshape the region.
The Soviet Union viewed Poland as a barrier to reclaiming territories lost after the First World War.
Britain and France, eager to avoid another catastrophic war, adopted appeasement as their guiding policy.
This was most evident in the 1938 Munich Agreement, where Hitler was allowed to annex Czechoslovakia’s Sudetenland without opposition.
The agreement, perceived as a betrayal by smaller states like Poland, demonstrated the unwillingness of Western democracies to confront German aggression.
Red Cross personnel attending to wounded soldiers on a Russian battlefield during the First World War. The Soviet Union viewed Poland as a critical barrier to reclaiming territories lost after the First World War and the Polish-Soviet War (1919–1921). The 1921 Treaty of Riga had ceded parts of Ukraine and Belarus to Poland, which the Soviets considered rightful Soviet land. By 1939, Stalin saw Poland’s weakening as an opportunity, facilitated by the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, to invade and retake these regions, reasserting Soviet influence in Eastern Europe under the guise of "protection."
https://www.vintag.es/2018/03/colorized-photos-of-russia-during-WWI.html
...overestimated their ability to navigate these complex dynamics...
Poland, meanwhile, pursued a precarious policy of balancing relations with Germany and the Soviet Union while seeking security guarantees from Britain and France.
However, Polish leaders, led by Marshal Edward Rydz-Śmigły and Foreign Minister Józef Beck, overestimated their ability to navigate these complex dynamics.
The final step toward the invasion came on August 23, 1939, when Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact.
This non-aggression treaty secretly divided Eastern Europe into spheres of influence, with Poland slated for partition.
The pact ensured Germany would face no threat from the east during its invasion, while the Soviet Union prepared to seize eastern Polish territories.
Józef Beck, Poland's Foreign Minister in the 1930s, pursued a policy of balancing between Germany and the Soviet Union while securing Western alliances. He championed Poland's independence, rejecting territorial concessions, including Hitler’s demands for Danzig. His diplomacy shaped Poland's stance but left the nation isolated against looming aggression by 1939.
A comic strip making fun of the Nazi-Soviet Alliance. The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact (1939) was a temporary alliance between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, despite opposing ideologies. It served mutual interests: Hitler secured Soviet neutrality for his invasion of Poland, while Stalin gained territory in Eastern Europe. This "marriage of convenience" collapsed when Germany invaded the USSR in 1941.
https://mycountryeurope.com/history/german-invasion-of-poland-ww2/
...on the brink of war...
In the weeks before the invasion, Germany intensified its propaganda campaign, accusing Poland of mistreating ethnic Germans and obstructing access to Danzig.
Hitler issued an ultimatum demanding the return of the Polish Corridor and Danzig. Poland’s refusal to concede further emboldened Hitler.
By late August 1939, Europe was on the brink of war. The failure of diplomacy, the appeasement of aggressors, and the ambitions of totalitarian regimes would culminate in the invasion of Poland , which in turn would trigger the start of the Second World War.
The events of the 1930s set the stage for this catastrophic conflict, as competing ideologies and unchecked aggression destabilized the fragile peace.
A map from the American magazine Look published on the 14th March 1939 predicting the start of WW2. Although it was not the Ukraine which proved to be the flashpoint, the magazine was correct in asserting that Eastern Europe would be the starting point for the second global conflict.
https://www.reddit.com/r/MapPorn/comments/m6xxtk/a_map_from_the_american_magazine_look_published/
The German Plan
The September Campaign, crafted by General Franz Halder, chief of the German General Staff, and directed by General Walther von Brauchitsch, commander-in-chief of the German Army, was a meticulously planned and devastatingly efficient operation.
It was designed to strike before any formal declaration of war, employing a ruthless strategy of mass encirclement and annihilation.
While not entirely mechanized, German infantry was bolstered by fast-moving artillery and logistical support, working in tandem with Panzers and Schützen regiments—truck-mounted infantry that would later evolve into the elite panzergrenadiers.
This combination aimed to pierce and overwhelm localized sections of the Polish front, isolating enemy units before surrounding and destroying them.
Franz Halder, Chief of the German General Staff during the invasion of Poland, was a key architect of Fall Weiss, Germany’s strategy for rapid conquest. Halder’s meticulous planning emphasized Blitzkrieg tactics, integrating mechanized units and air support to overwhelm Polish forces.
German military map showing planned assault on Poland in 1939. The planning for Fall Weiss began in April 1939, with German generals Franz Halder and Walther von Brauchitsch devising a strategy for a swift invasion of Poland. The plan emphasized Blitzkrieg tactics, using rapid armored advances, air superiority, and encirclement to overwhelm Polish defenses. Germany’s Army Group North and Army Group South would converge on Warsaw, isolating and destroying Polish forces. Coordination with the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact secured Soviet neutrality, ensuring Poland’s partition and Germany’s swift victory.
...an aggressive doctrine...
The campaign would incorporate elements of the "armoured idea," an aggressive doctrine championed by visionary generals like Heinz Guderian.
This approach, later dubbed Blitzkrieg by a curious American journalist, envisioned tanks spearheading deep thrusts into enemy territory.
Blitzkrieg tactics would be used significantly during the invasion of Poland , though not yet in their fully developed form seen later in the war.
Germany combined armored divisions, mechanized infantry, and Luftwaffe air support to achieve rapid advances, encircle Polish forces, and disrupt communications.
Blitzkrieg combined airstrikes, artillery, and rapid armored advances to break enemy lines. Tanks spearheaded deep thrusts, bypassing strongholds, while mechanized infantry followed to consolidate gains. Encirclement trapped enemy forces, cutting off supplies and communication, forcing surrender or destruction. Speed and surprise disrupted defenses, achieving swift and decisive victories.
...the situation had grown more precarious...
Poland’s geography offered fertile ground for mobile warfare—vast flat plains stretched across its nearly 5,600 kilometers (3,500 miles) of borders, ripe for rapid movement when weather conditions permitted.
To the west and north, Poland faced Germany, with an extended frontier wrapping around East Prussia.
To the south, the situation had grown more precarious after the 1938 Munich Agreement, which allowed Germany to annex Bohemia and Moravia and establish Slovakia as a puppet state.
This left Poland’s southern flank dangerously exposed.
Nazi Germany map 1939: Nazi Germany steadily expanded its borders, redrawing Europe's map and isolating Poland. The 1938 Anschluss united Germany with Austria, and the Munich Agreement ceded the Sudetenland, weakening neighboring states. In 1939, Germany annexed Czechoslovakia, creating a southern front against Poland. East Prussia, already separated from Germany by the Polish Corridor, became a staging ground for invasion. With encroaching German territory on multiple sides and limited Allied support, Poland was increasingly vulnerable to aggression.
https://chandalzbabara.pages.dev/utvrh-map-of-germany-in-1939-hhtgy/
...a massive, three-pronged assault...
Colonel General Gerd von Rundstedt would command Army Group South during the German invasion of Poland.
https://www.ww2incolor.com/gallery/colorizations/54311/general-von-rundstedt
Hitler demanded the conquest of Poland in six weeks, though German planners estimated it would take closer to three months.
The operational plan, Fall Weiss, envisioned a massive, three-pronged assault that would capitalize on Germany’s long shared border with Poland. The offensive was structured as follows:
Army Group South: Commanded by Colonel General Gerd von Rundstedt, this was the primary thrust, attacking from German Silesia and the Moravian-Slovak border, General Johannes Blaskowitz’s 8th Army aimed to advance eastward toward Łódź and General Wilhelm List’s 14th Army would push toward Kraków and outflank Polish forces in the Carpathians.
The city of Krakow in Poland in the early 1930's. Kraków featured prominently in German invasion plans due to its strategic location and importance as a cultural and economic hub. The city’s capture was crucial for securing southern Poland and supporting operations by Army Group South, which aimed to outflank Polish defenses and push toward central Poland and Warsaw.
...would deliver the decisive blow...
At the centre, General Walter von Reichenau’s 10th Army, armed with Army Group South’s armored divisions, would deliver the decisive blow with a northeastward advance into central Poland.
Army Group North: Led by Colonel General Fedor von Bock, this force would strike from northern Prussia, General Georg von Küchler’s 3rd Army would attack southward from East Prussia and General Günther von Kluge’s 4th Army would sweep eastward across the base of the Polish Corridor.
Supporting the southern thrust, allied Slovak forces would launch attacks from Slovakia.
Additionally, the Volksdeutscher Selbstschutz, German minority militias, would have already been prewarned and prepared and would engage in diversionary and sabotage operations within Poland.
Generalfeldmarschall Walther von Reichenau was to command Germany's 10th Army during the invasion of Poland. He wasto lead a decisive armored thrust toward central Poland. His forces would play a key role in encircling and defeating Polish defenders.
Colonel General Fedor von Bock would lead Army Group North.
https://www.diepresse.com/369176/12-maerz-1938-der-einmarsch-war-nicht-nur-ein-blumenkorso
General Georg von Küchler would attack from East Prussia southwards with his 3rd Army
General Günther von Kluge would attack eastwards across the Polish Corridor with his 4th army.
https://alifrafikkhan.blogspot.com/2022/01/generalfeldmarschall-gunther-von-kluge.html
...executed with precision...
The encirclement of Warsaw during the German Invasion in 1939. Unsurprisingly, German planning focused on capturing the Polish capital.
https://www.wikiwand.com/en/articles/Siege_of_Warsaw_%281939%29
The ultimate goal was clear: converge all forces on Warsaw, encircle Poland’s main armies west of the Vistula, and crush resistance swiftly.
The plan would be executed with precision on the 1st September 1939, marking the start of the Second World War in Europe.
Within weeks, Poland would be overwhelmed, and the chilling efficiency of Germany’s war machine would set the stage for the next global conflict.
Adolf Hitler, Heinrich Himmler and General Felix Steiner planning the invasion of Poland, 1939. Planning the invasion of Poland encapsulated Hitler’s expansionist aims for Lebensraum and overturning the Treaty of Versailles. It reflected his strategy of uniting Germans, seizing resources, and subjugating Eastern Europe. Hitler’s emphasis on speed, overwhelming force, and ruthless repression mirrored his ambitions for dominance and disregard for international agreements or opposition.
The Polish Defence
As tensions mounted in 1939, Poland crafted its defense strategy, Plan West, under the shadow of its alliance with Britain and France.
The Polish-British Common Defence Pact influenced this approach, focusing on protecting vital western territories rich in resources, industry, and population.
This decision, while politically motivated, would have profound implications for Poland’s ability to withstand the German invasion.
Polish defense plans in 1939 were shaped by agreements with Britain and France, which pledged support against German aggression. Poland prioritized holding key positions to delay German advances, anticipating rapid Allied offensives in the west. This reliance on external support, however, proved misplaced as Britain and France failed to act decisively. Limited resources and outdated military strategies further constrained Polish efforts, leaving them vulnerable to Germany's blitzkrieg. Despite their determination, Poland’s isolation ultimately led to its swift defeat.
file:///C:/Users/72jam/Downloads/Walczaca_Rzeczpospolita_EN.pdf
Population comparisons between Poland and her soon-to-be enemies in 1939. Poland's defensive plans in 1939 were shaped by its smaller population compared to its aggressive neighbors, Germany and the Soviet Union. Lacking the manpower for prolonged or offensive campaigns, Poland emphasized a strategy of delaying actions, focusing on fortified regions and mobile defenses. The relatively limited size of its army meant prioritizing key areas, like the Polish Corridor and major cities, over a uniform defense. This imbalance left Poland vulnerable to the overwhelming forces of its adversaries.
...economically indispensable...
The Vistula RIver, which runs through the centre of Poland and is a significant natural barrier, was rejected as a potential defence line, despite French suggestions.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vistula#/media/File:Vistula_river_map.png
Poland’s western regions, particularly Eastern Upper Silesia, were economically indispensable.
Polish leaders feared that abandoning these areas could prompt Britain and France to negotiate a separate peace with Germany, similar to the infamous 1938 Munich Agreement.
Compounding these fears was the lack of a specific Allied guarantee of Poland’s borders or territorial integrity.
Thus, the Polish government rejected French advice to deploy forces behind natural barriers like the Vistula and San Rivers, a strategy some Polish generals had favored.
British PM Neville Chamberlin, French Premier Édouard Daladier, Fuhrer of Germany, Adolf Hitler and Il Duce, Italian Benito Mussolini who together signed the Munich Agreement. The Munich Agreement of 1938 allowed Nazi Germany to annex Czechoslovakia’s Sudetenland, claiming to protect ethnic Germans there. Britain, France, Germany, and Italy negotiated the deal, excluding Czechoslovakia. Hailed as a peace effort, it emboldened Hitler, weakened Central Europe’s defenses, and epitomized the failure of appeasement before the Second World War. The Polish government feared a similar outcome for their country should they be seen to sacrifice any areas of their country in the face of German aggression.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Munich_conference%281938%29.png
...to buy time for full mobilization...
Plan West aimed for a deliberate retreat into the country’s interior, relying on prepared defensive positions to buy time for full mobilization and a counteroffensive, ideally supported by Allied forces.
In the event of a catastrophic failure, Polish forces planned to retreat to the southeastern region.
The rugged terrain there—defined by rivers, valleys, and swamps—was deemed defensible and a potential staging ground for the Romanian Bridgehead, allowing continued resistance.
Polish troops, escapees from Nazi-Soviet occupied Poland, being welcomed by Romanian population while crossing the Romanian border after the Invasion of Poland. The Romanian Bridgehead was central to Poland’s military planning in 1939, serving as a fallback zone in southeastern Poland. Polish forces aimed to regroup there, utilizing the area’s natural defenses and Romania’s Constanța port for Allied resupply. However, the Soviet invasion on September 17 nullified the strategy, trapping many troops.
Mobilization: A young man reads an alert on the streets of Warsaw. Poland's mobilization plans prior to the 1939 invasion aimed to assemble 1.35 million troops, but delays under Allied pressure would leave only 70% mobilized by the 1st September. This partial readiness would hinder defence efforts, as units were still forming or relocating, and would leavie Poland vulnerable to Germany's swift Blitzkrieg tactics.
https://en.topwar.ru/183095-polskaja-mobilizacija-1939-goda.html
...emphasizing defensive operations...
Poland's General Staff began formal work on Plan West only in March 1939, leaving limited time for refinement.
The plan acknowledged the enemy's numerical and material superiority, emphasizing defensive operations in the early stages.
However, it lacked detailed contingencies beyond the initial phase.
While Poland expected Allied intervention within weeks, British and French planners anticipated a prolonged war, akin to the trench warfare of the First World War.
This disconnect left Poland relying on promises of swift Allied support that would never materialize.
British soldiers in the trenches during the Battle of Cambrai in the First World War. British and French planners in 1939 anticipated a prolonged war resembling First World War trench warfare, focusing on defensive strategies like the Maginot Line. They expected a static conflict in Western Europe, relying on economic blockades and gradual offensives to weaken Germany. This cautious approach would delay Allied action and leave Poland unsupported against Germany’s swift Blitzkrieg tactics.
...prioritizing territorial defence...
Polish forces were spread thin along the German-Polish border, prioritizing territorial defence over compact, defensible lines. This positioning created several vulnerabilities:
- The Polish Corridor: One-third of the army was stationed here, making them susceptible to a double envelopment from East Prussia and western Germany.
- Central Poland: Another third of the forces concentrated between Łódź and Warsaw.
- Logistical Strain: Forward deployment left supply lines exposed and unprotected, while Polish units lacked the mobility to execute strategic retreats effectively.
Polish divisions often found themselves outflanked by highly mobile German mechanized formations, compounding the challenge of maintaining cohesion.
Map of the Polish Corridor from a 1930s German postcard (Barron Maps). Poland’s defensive planning for the Polish Corridor, a vital region connecting Poland to the Baltic Sea, emphasized protecting its territorial integrity against German aggression. Troops were concentrated along the corridor, focusing on delaying actions to hold key routes like Tczew. However, this exposed defenses to encirclement by German forces attacking from East Prussia and the west, highlighting strategic vulnerabilities.
https://neverwasmag.com/2019/10/the-nazi-conquest-of-europe-in-maps/1930s-polish-corridor-map/
...ordered the evacuation...
Anticipating German dominance in the Baltic, Marshal Edward Śmigły-Rydz, under British pressure, put in place plans for the evacuation of Poland’s modern naval destroyers.
Four days after signing the Polish-British pact, the destroyers would execute the Peking Plan, and reach Britain safely before hostilities began.
This would ensure a portion of Poland’s naval assets could contribute to Allied operations, though it would leave the Baltic undefended.
The Polish destroyer Grom. The Polish destroyer Grom was a key naval asset during the early days of the Second World War. As part of the Peking Plan, Grom and two sister ships (Burza and Błyskawica) were deployed to Britain on the 30th August, 1939, just before Germany invaded Poland. This strategic move aimed to preserve Poland’s most modern warships, enabling them to continue fighting alongside Allied forces in subsequent naval operations, despite Poland’s eventual occupation.
...triggering mass eastward evacuations...
A German Ju-87 'Stuka' divebomber over Poland. The Stuka dive-bomber would epitomize shock and terror during the invasion of Poland, unleashing precise, devastating attacks. Its infamous sirens, designed to produce a chilling wail, caused panic among shocked and helpless Polish civilians.
https://acesflyinghigh.wordpress.com/2013/07/31/achtung-stuka/
While the military braced for conflict, Poland’s civilian population remained ill-prepared. Government propaganda had long assured citizens of swift victories against any German aggression.
However, when the invasion eventually began, Polish defeats shocked civilians, triggering mass eastward evacuations. Constant bombings from the ever present Luftwaffe would cause havoc amongst the population.
These chaotic movements would disrupt military supply lines and sap troop morale. Roadways would become clogged and impede troop movements, while disjointed communications would worsen the situation.
Adding to the confusion, Polish media would frequently report false victories and reinforcements, leading some units to stand and fight against overwhelming odds or conduct ill-fated counterattacks.
The chaos of war: Polish civilians assist an injured woman after a German bombing raid. Despite Polish military planning, the civilian population would bear the brunt of the German invasion in 1939. Germany’s blitzkrieg strategy would involve indiscriminate aerial bombardments and artillery strikes, devastating cities like Warsaw. Civilians would suffer mass casualties, displacement, and destruction of infrastructure. While the Polish army would fight valiantly, their limited resources would not be able to shield the population from atrocities, including targeted massacres and widespread terror campaigns, which were integral to Nazi Germany’s strategy of instilling fear and subjugation.
...embodied the courage and determination...
Plan West embodied the courage and determination of Polish leaders and soldiers, but it was deeply flawed.
Political considerations overruled sound military strategy, while misaligned expectations with Allied powers left Poland isolated.
The forward deployment of forces, combined with logistical vulnerabilities and civilian chaos, meant that when Germany’s invasion began, Poland’s defenses were stretched to the breaking point.
Polish soldiers during the German Invasion. Polish soldiers displayed remarkable bravery during the German invasion of Poland in 1939, despite being outmatched in equipment and numbers. They fought fiercely against the Wehrmacht’s blitzkrieg tactics, engaging in battles like Mokra and Bzura. Lacking modern weaponry and air support, they relied on courage and determination. Despite heavy losses and inevitable defeat, Polish forces delayed German advances, demonstrating resilience. Many soldiers later joined resistance movements or fled to continue fighting with Allied forces abroad.
https://collections.lib.uwm.edu/digital/collection/pol/id/93/
Countdown to conflict - 1939
By 1939, tensions in Europe had reached a boiling point, with Nazi Germany taking increasingly aggressive steps under Adolf Hitler's leadership.
On the 28th April, 1939, Hitler unilaterally withdrew from the German-Polish Non-Aggression Pact of 1934 and the Anglo-German Naval Agreement of 1935, signalling a shift toward confrontation.
Diplomatic talks between Germany and Poland over contentious issues, such as the status of Danzig and the Polish Corridor, collapsed.
Months passed with no contact between the two nations, during which Germany learned that Britain and France had failed to secure an alliance with the Soviet Union against Germany.
Instead, the Soviets expressed interest in aligning with Germany against Poland.
Map of Poland in 1938.
...establish German dominance...
Amid these developments, Hitler issued orders to prepare for a military solution to what he called the "Polish problem."
The plan, known as Case White, laid the groundwork for a potential invasion.
Hitler's ambitions extended far beyond territorial adjustments.
His goal was to establish German dominance in Eastern Europe and secure Lebensraum (living space), ensuring the nation's long-term food security by conquering sparsely populated areas.
Borders of Greater Germanic Reich envisaged in the Nazi-era propaganda map "Das Grossdeutschland in der Zukunft" (1943). The map depicts occupied Eastern Europe as a settler-colonial territory of Nazi Germany. Hitler’s Lebensraum plans for Poland aimed to create "living space" for Germans by conquering and colonizing Polish territory. These plans involved displacing or exterminating Polish populations, exploiting resources, and resettling Germans. Poland’s invasion in 1939 marked the first step in this racial and territorial agenda, driving Nazi expansionism eastward.
...cannot be achieved without bloodshed...
In May 1939, as German military planners refined the details of the invasion, Hitler addressed his generals, making it clear that Poland would not fall as easily as Czechoslovakia had during the Sudetenland crisis.
"With minor exceptions, German national unification has been achieved. Further successes cannot be achieved without bloodshed. Poland will always be on the side of our adversaries... Danzig is not the objective. It is a matter of expanding our living space in the east, of making our food supply secure, and solving the problem of the Baltic states... There is therefore no question of sparing Poland, and the decision remains to attack Poland at the first opportunity."
German Propaganda poster 1930's highlighting the tensions over Danzig and the Polish Corridor. Germany demanded control of Danzig and transit rights through Polish territory, while Poland, valuing sovereignty, refused, escalating conflicts before the Second World War.
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gdansk_Muzeum_IIWS_13.jpg
The Baltic States in 1933. The Baltic States were strategically linked to Hitler’s plans to invade nearby Poland through the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. In the pact’s secret protocols, the Soviet Union was granted control over the Baltic States, securing Soviet neutrality and facilitating Germany’s eastern ambitions. This division of influence allowed Hitler to focus on Poland without fearing Soviet intervention. Additionally, controlling Poland would further Germany’s strategic reach in the region, indirectly threatening the Baltic States as part of broader territorial expansion.
https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/gallery/baltic-countries-maps
...emphasizing the brutality that would define the campaign...
A Scharführer from Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp in the standard uniform worn by SS-Totenkopfverbände ('Deaths Head'). Hitler stated he would unleash his ruthless Deaths Head troops on the Polish populace.
On the 22nd August 1939, just days before the planned invasion, Hitler delivered another speech to his commanders at Obersalzberg, emphasizing the brutality that would define the campaign:
"The object of the war is… physically to destroy the enemy... my 'Death's Head' formations [SS units] have orders to kill without pity or mercy all men, women, and children of Polish descent or language."
This uncompromising rhetoric underscored Hitler's determination to annihilate Poland as part of a larger vision for German expansion.
Hitler at a Rally shortly before the outbreak of war. In the buildup to the invasion of Poland, Hitler’s rhetoric focused on justifying aggression through fabricated grievances. He accused Poland of oppressing German minorities and posed Danzig’s status as a critical issue. Hitler framed Germany as a victim seeking justice while secretly planning conquest. His speeches emphasized German unity and destiny, appealing to nationalist fervor. This propaganda, combined with false claims of Polish provocations, manipulated public opinion and masked his broader expansionist aims, setting the stage for war.
https://pastdaily.com/2021/08/30/august-29-30-1939-europe-on-the-edge-of-war-hours-and-minutes/
...neutralized the possibility of Soviet opposition to Germany's plans...
The next day, August 23, Germany finalized the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with the Soviet Union.
This non-aggression treaty, negotiated secretly in Moscow, neutralized the possibility of Soviet opposition to Germany's plans.
Crucially, it included a secret protocol dividing Eastern Europe into spheres of influence. Poland was to be partitioned, with the western third going to Germany and the eastern two-thirds to the Soviet Union.
The pact gave Hitler the green light to proceed, knowing the Soviets would not interfere. It also committed the USSR to refrain from aiding Britain or France if they went to war with Germany over Poland.
The signing of the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact as reported in the Dayton Daily News in Dayton, Ohio on Tuesday, 22nd August 1939. The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, signed on the 23rd August 1939, was a non-aggression treaty between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. Its secret protocol divided Eastern Europe, including Poland, into spheres of influence. This agreement gave Hitler the confidence to invade Poland on the 1st September 1939, without fear of Soviet intervention. The pact also ensured Stalin’s invasion of Poland from the east on the 17th September, sealing Poland's fate. This cooperation would lead to the start of the Second World War and Poland’s partition.
...a willingness to resume negotiations...
With war seemingly inevitable, European countries started to prepare. Air Raid Warning notices - in anticipation of German bombers appearing over British cities - sprung up in the UK.
https://pastdaily.com/2021/08/31/august-31-1939-preparations-demands-evacuations/
The German assault was initially scheduled for the 26th August 1939, but events that day forced a temporary halt.
The signing of the Polish-British Common Defence Pact, an extension of the Franco-Polish alliance, saw Britain formally commit to defending Poland’s independence.
At the same time, the British and Polish governments signaled to Berlin a willingness to resume negotiations, which Hitler had not anticipated.
Hoping to avoid framing the conflict as an aggressive German move, Hitler postponed the invasion to the 1st September.
Despite the delay, some German units were unaware of the change.
Hitler initially planned to attack Poland on the 26th August 1939, but delayed the invasion until the 1st September due to diplomatic concerns. The signing of a British-Polish mutual defense pact on the 25th August complicated his strategy, as Britain’s firm stance suggested broader resistance. Additionally, Italy expressed unpreparedness to support Germany militarily. These developments prompted Hitler to reassess timing to ensure political and military readiness. The delay allowed further coordination with the Soviets under the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact.
...the actions of an "insane individual."...
On the night of August 25–26, a sabotage group attacked the Jabłonków Pass and the Mosty railway station in Silesia.
Polish troops repelled the assault, and the Germans dismissed the incident as the actions of an "insane individual."
On the 26th August, Hitler attempted to dissuade Britain and France from intervening.
He even promised that the Wehrmacht would be available to support Britain’s empire in the future if they stayed out of the Polish conflict.
Wehrmacht soldiers on the march during the battle for France in 1940, a year after the Invasion of Poland. As part of his attempts to persuade Britain and France from supporting Poland, Hitler offered the British Government the use of German troops in future. conflicts. This unusual diplomatic move demonstrated that even at this late stage, Hitler still expressed doubts or worries regarding his plans for Poland.
https://forums.kitmaker.net/t/german-army-uniform-blitzkrieg-era/24862/2
...deemed this demand unacceptable...
Józef Lipski, Polish Ambassador to Nazi Germany. In 1939, he rejected German demands over Danzig and the Polish Corridor, resisting territorial concessions. His stance symbolized Poland’s defiance but failed to prevent invasion.
These efforts convinced Hitler that the Western Allies were unlikely to declare war. If they did, he believed they would quickly negotiate a settlement favorable to Germany after Poland’s defeat.
By the 29th August, Germany issued one final diplomatic offer, proposing not only the restoration of Danzig to Germany but also the annexation of the Polish Corridor.
This ultimatum required a Polish representative with full signing powers to arrive in Berlin by the following day.
The British Cabinet, wary of a repeat of the Sudetenland betrayal, deemed this demand unacceptable.
When the Polish Ambassador, Józef Lipski, met German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop on the 31st August, he was dismissed for lacking signing authority.
That night, Germany broadcast that Poland had rejected their terms, effectively ending negotiations.
Hitler greeting Chamberlain on the steps of the Berghof, 15th September 1938 during the Sudetenland Crisis. The crisis, where Britain appeased Hitler by allowing Nazi annexation of Czechoslovakia’s borderlands, significantly influenced British views on German ultimatums over Poland. Hitler’s broken promises following the Munich Agreement exposed his expansionist ambitions, eroding British trust. By 1939, Britain recognized appeasement had failed and vowed to resist further aggression. When Germany issued demands over Poland, Britain saw it as a test of resolve, leading to formal guarantees of Polish independence and a commitment to war.
...significantly reduced the Polish Army’s combat effectiveness...
Amid these diplomatic exchanges, Poland began mobilizing its forces.
However, under pressure from Britain and France, the process was repeatedly delayed, leaving only about 70% of Poland’s planned forces ready when war broke out.
This significantly reduced the Polish Army’s combat effectiveness, as many units were still forming or moving to their designated positions.
On the night of the 31st August, Germany staged the Gleiwitz incident, a false flag operation where German operatives posed as Polish soldiers and attacked a German radio station.
This fabricated attack provided Hitler with a pretext for invasion.
This sequence of calculated aggression, diplomatic deception, and militarized expansion demonstrated the dangerous interplay of appeasement, miscalculation, and unchecked ambition that would soon plunge the world into conflict.
German intentions were becoming increasingly clear in the days before the invasion of Poland. On 29 August, war correspondent Claire Hollingworth wrote in The Daily Telegraph of 10 mobile divisions massed on the border.
Dispositions of opposing forces, 31st August 1939, the day before the German invasion. The German forces were positioned along Poland’s western, northern, and southern borders, organized into Army Group North and Army Group South, totaling 1.5 million troops, 2,600 tanks, and 2,000 aircraft. Polish forces, approximately 950,000 strong, were spread thinly along the border, with significant concentrations near the Polish Corridor and major cities like Warsaw and Łódź. The Germans would focus on encirclement and rapid advances, while Poland's forward deployment left its defenscs vulnerable to mechanized attacks.
Department of History, United States Military Academy
The Opposing Forces
The invasion of Poland pitted vastly unequal forces against one another. Germany’s modern, well-equipped military showcased the power of Blitzkrieg, while Poland’s defenses, though courageous, were outdated and overwhelmed.
This comparison examines the equipment, strategies, leaders, and overall capabilities of the opposing forces.
The Polish Army fielded around 950,000 troops at the start of the war, though many were still mobilizing when hostilities began. Their equipment included:
Infantry Weapons: Polish forces relied heavily on bolt-action rifles, such as the Karabinek wz. 1929.
Artillery: While Poland had competent artillery units, their numbers were limited compared to the German Army.
The Karabinek wz. 1929, a Polish bolt-action rifle, was the standard infantry weapon during the invasion of Poland. Based on the Mauser design, it was reliable and accurate but lacked the versatility of Germany's Karabiner 98k, which offered superior range and rate of fire. Unlike the Germans, who integrated semi-automatic rifles and submachine guns, Poland relied heavily on the Karabinek wz. 1929, leaving their troops at a disadvantage against Germany’s modernized arsenal.
...technologically inferior to the modern German Luftwaffe...
Before the German invasion in 1939, Edward Rydz-Śmigły, Poland’s Commander-in-Chief, focused on mobilizing the army under Plan West, balancing fragile alliances while facing the looming threat of Nazi aggression.
https://www.deviantart.com/colourascendancy/art/Marshal-Edward-Rydz-Smigly-752038320
Tanks and Vehicles: Poland had approximately 600 tanks, including light tanks like the 7TP, which were effective but few.
Armoured support was insufficient against Germany’s larger tank formations.
Air Force: The Polish Air Force possessed about 400 aircraft, including PZL P.11 fighters. These were technologically inferior to the modern German Luftwaffe.
Key leaders included Marshal Edward Rydz-Śmigły, the commander-in-chief, and various regional commanders.
Polish strategy focused on defending the borders and holding key cities, but this exposed their forces to rapid encirclement by German mechanized units.
Communication and coordination were hampered by outdated infrastructure.
The 7TP was a Polish light tank of the Second World War. It was developed from the British Vickers 6-ton. It was Poland's primary tank in 1939, and was superior to early German Panzer I and Panzer II models in firepower and armor. Equipped with a 37mm Bofors gun, it could penetrate German tanks effectively. However, Poland had only about 140 7TPs, compared to Germany’s 2,600 tanks, including medium Panzers like the Panzer III and Panzer IV, which outclassed the 7TP. Limited numbers and lack of coordination hindered its impact against Germany’s mechanized forces.
...the latest in military technology...
In contrast, Germany deployed over 1.5 million troops, equipped with the latest in military technology. Key assets included:
Tanks: The Wehrmacht fielded over 2,600 tanks, including Panzer I and Panzer II models, supported by motorized infantry.
Air Force: The Luftwaffe dominated the skies with over 2,000 aircraft, including the Messerschmitt Bf 109 and Junkers Ju 87 (Stuka) dive bombers.
These aircraft played a pivotal role in destroying Polish infrastructure and demoralizing defenders.
A Panzer II Ausf.C in the streets of Przemyśl in south-eastern Poland in September 1939. The vehicle most probably belongs to the 5th Panzer Division. The photo itself is one of a series which was made commercially available to soldiers of the Division shortly after the end of the Polish campaign. The vehicle still retains the early solid white Balkenkreuz and also sports a second, large white cross running over its upper side and turret, for aerial identification.
The light Panzer IIs first saw combat during the campaign in Poland in 1939, where they were used in the role of a main battle tank. Combat losses were high and from May 1940, during the invasion of Belgium, Holland and France, they were largely relegated to reconnaissance roles.
Colourised Colour by RJM
Image/Text Robin Schafer/Iron Cross Magazine.
...flexibility in both offense and defence...
General Heinz Guderian would lead German armored divisions in Poland, 1939, showcasing blitzkrieg tactics. His rapid advances would overwhelm Polish defenses, demonstrating the effectiveness of mechanized warfare and solidifying his military reputation.
Infantry and Artillery: German soldiers were well-trained and supported by mobile artillery units, giving them flexibility in both offense and defence.
Under Adolf Hitler’s direction, German generals such as Gerd von Rundstedt, Fedor von Bock, and Heinz Guderian orchestrated the invasion.
The Germans employed Blitzkrieg tactics, a revolutionary strategy that combined rapid armored assaults, air support, and coordinated infantry movements to bypass static defenses and encircle enemy forces.
A Heinkel He-111 over Poland in 1939. The Heinkel He 111 played a pivotal role in the German blitzkrieg during the invasion of Poland in 1939. This medium bomber conducted rapid, devastating air raids on military targets, railways, and civilian infrastructure, supporting the Wehrmacht's fast-moving ground forces. Its versatility and range enabled precision attacks that disrupted Polish defenses and communication lines. Additionally, its bombings of cities like Warsaw contributed to widespread destruction and terror, exemplifying the Luftwaffe’s integral role in the blitzkrieg strategy.
https://www.jhi.pl/en/articles/september-1939-something-broke-in-the-entire-world,5154
...under the pretext of protecting ethnic Ukrainians and Belarusians...
Additionally, the Soviet Union would enter the conflict on 17th September 1939, invading eastern Poland under the pretext of protecting ethnic Ukrainians and Belarusians.
They would deploy approximately 450,000 troops with modern tanks, such as the BT-7, and aircraft. Soviet forces would face little resistance as the bulk of Polish troops were engaged in the west.
Slovakia, a German ally, would contribute around 50,000 troops and several small armoured units to support the southern flank.
Their role was minor but symbolically significant as part of the Axis coalition.
A Soviet BT-7 Tank entering a polish village during the Soviet Invasion of Poland, 1939. The Soviet Union deployed modern armored units, including BT-7 and T-26 tanks, during its invasion of Poland on September 17, 1939. These tanks, superior to most Polish equipment, overwhelmed limited defenses. Soviet armor spearheaded rapid advances, encircling Polish forces in the east and ensuring swift territorial gains under minimal resistance.
https://www.reddit.com/r/TankPorn/comments/8nb5zn/a_soviet_bt_tank_entering_a_polish_village_during/
...overwhelmed Poland’s fragmented defences...
Polish infantry on the March, 15th April 1939. Polish infantry in the 1930s was well-trained and disciplined but lacked modern equipment and mobility. Reliance on outdated rifles and limited mechanization would leave them outmatched against Germany's advanced Blitzkrieg tactics.
Colorized by Mikołaj Kaczmarek
https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=979378026891318&id=100044573887860&set=a.279335500228911
Germany’s ability to rapidly coordinate air and ground assaults would ultimately overwhelm Poland’s fragmented defences.
German mechanized units planned to move swiftly through the Polish Corridor and other strategic locations, encircling Polish forces and cutting off retreat routes.
The Luftwaffe’s air superiority was tasked with crippling Polish logistics and morale.
Poland’s defence would be marked by bravery but hindered by outdated tactics, such as deploying cavalry against tanks in some instances (though often exaggerated).
Polish units would be forced to fight isolated battles, unable to form a cohesive counterattack.
The Soviet advance would seal Poland’s fate, dividing its forces between two fronts and ensuring its eventual defeat.
By the 28th September, the Polish capital would fall, ultimately leading to Poland's defeat and the country finding itself partitioned between Germany and the Soviet Union.
Polish cavalry in 1939. Polish cavalry would play a complex role during the German invasion, reflecting both its strengths and limitations. Contrary to myths, Polish cavalry did not charge tanks but instead operated as highly mobile infantry, often dismounting to fight. Equipped with rifles, machine guns, and small anti-tank weapons, cavalry units engaged German forces effectively in some battles, such as at Mokra, delaying armored advances. However, they were vulnerable to Germany’s Blitzkrieg tactics, including air attacks and mechanized units, highlighting the challenges of outdated military doctrine against modern warfare.
https://www.reddit.com/r/wwiipics/comments/gr0cir/polish_cavalry_1939_colorized_by_me_im_new_to/
...superior equipment, air power, and tactics...
The invasion of Poland would showcase the stark disparity between modernized, mechanized warfare and a nation still reliant on traditional methods.
Germany’s superior equipment, air power, and tactics would prove too much for the overwhelmed Poland’s valiant but under-resourced forces.
The contributions of Soviet and Slovakian troops would further emphasise the imbalance, leaving Poland’s defenders unable to withstand the onslaught.
German and Polish army dispositions on the eve of the German invasion.
The Invasion of Poland
On the 1st September 1939, Adolf Hitler declared war on Poland, citing fabricated provocations like the Gleiwitz incident.
As the world looked on in horror, German troops swiftly crossed the German-Polish border at multiple points.
Framing the invasion as self-defense, Hitler justified Germany’s assault, launching the swift and devastating Blitzkrieg.
This act of aggression marked the beginning of the Second World War, drawing Europe into a catastrophic global conflict.
The invasion itself unfolded in several different phases:
A Polish barrier on the border is chopped to pieces by German soldiers. Sępólno Krajeńskie, Poland, 1st September 1939. On September 1, 1939, German forces crossed the Polish border, launching a surprise invasion that marked the start of the Second World War. Using blitzkrieg tactics, they unleashed rapid advances with tanks, infantry, and air support. This aggressive assault quickly overwhelmed Polish defenses, leading to widespread chaos and the eventual fall of Poland.
NIOD, Amsterdam (Beeldbank WO2)
https://www.annefrank.org/en/timeline/24/the-start-of-the-second-world-war-germany-invades-poland/
The official start of the Second World War. Contemporary newspapers report Hitlers aggressive rhetoric during the invasion of Poland after months of increasing tensions and political manoeuvring.
https://blog.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/2013/08/31/nazi-germany-invades-poland-1-september-1939/
Newspapers reporting the Invasion of Poland. The international response to Poland's invasion was swift but limited. Britain and France declared war on Germany on the 3rd September, 1939, honoring their defense pacts, yet provided no immediate military aid. Other nations condemned the aggression but remained neutral. The Soviet invasion of eastern Poland deepened global unease, marking a grim turning point.
...the war’s first and most dramatic battles...
The Baltic Coast became a critical theatre during the opening days of the invasion, witnessing some of the war’s first and most dramatic battles.
The conflict began with the Battle of Westerplatte, where the German battleship Schleswig-Holstein - after sailing into Danzig (modern Gdańsk) harbour under the under the pretext of making a courtesy call - suddenly bombarded the Polish garrison on the nearby Westerplatte peninsula.
Despite relentless assaults, the outnumbered Polish defenders held out for seven days, earning a lasting legacy as a symbol of heroic resistance.
The German pre-dreadnought battleship Schleswig-Holstein bombards Polish positions in Westerplatte, from the harbour of Danzig (now Gdansk), on the early morning of September 1st, 1939. These were the first shots of the Second World War.
https://www.reddit.com/r/WarshipPorn/comments/kg330q/the_german_predreadnought_battleship/
...aimed to destroy key rail and road bridges...
Elsewhere, Germany sought to eliminate Poland’s access to the sea, link Danzig with East Prussia, and secure the controversial Polish Corridor.
The Bombing of Tczew on the 1st September aimed to destroy key rail and road bridges to sever Polish communications. While partially successful, it marked one of the earliest uses of German Blitzkrieg air tactics.
A series of naval skirmishes also unfolded in Danzig Bay, including German attacks on Polish minesweepers and submarines.
Polish naval strategy under the Worek Plan positioned submarines to defend the coast, but limited resources and overwhelming German naval superiority curtailed their effectiveness.
German soldiers and Landespolizisten (border police) of the Free City of Danzig remove the Polish border crossing in Sopot, 1st September 1939, as a reenactment of the same event earlier that day. The day the invasion began, resistance was offered by the Polish 2nd Maritime Rifle Regiment in the crossing at Sopot. The following weeks of suffering would become months and eventually years as a new kind of war turned to evolve in one of the cruelest events in Human history.
https://www.flickr.com/photos/cassowaryprods/48661789227/in/photostream/
...Polish troops fought bravely but succumbed to relentless German assaults...
The Peking Plan, executed days before the invasion, allowed three Polish destroyers—Błyskawica, Grom, and Burza—to escape to Britain, preserving part of Poland’s navy.
Those left behind, including the submarine Orzeł, faced heavy German attacks. The Orzeł escaped internment in Estonia, embarking on a daring journey to Britain, boosting Allied morale.
German forces quickly captured Gdynia, a vital port, and pressed towards the fortified Hel Peninsula, where Polish defenders resisted until early October.
At Kępa Oksywska, Polish troops fought bravely but succumbed to relentless German assaults.
The Baltic battles highlighted Poland’s resolve but underscored its navy’s limitations against Germany’s overwhelming might, marking a tragic start to the war.
The Polish submarine Orzeł played a dramatic role during the invasion of Poland in 1939. Trapped in Tallinn, Estonia, after the Soviet invasion and facing internment, her crew staged a daring escape on September 18. Navigating without maps or communication, Orzeł managed to reach Britain, symbolizing Polish defiance and ingenuity. She later joined the Royal Navy's operations, becoming a valuable asset to Allied naval efforts and a testament to Poland's commitment to resist German and Soviet oppression.
...showcasing the swift and devastating power of Blitzkrieg tactics...
The Battle of the Border, marked the main, opening phase of Germany’s invasion of Poland, showcasing the swift and devastating power of Blitzkrieg tactics.
Without declaring war, Germany attacked along multiple fronts using Army Group North and Army Group South.
Despite Polish forces fighting courageously, they faced overwhelming odds and were unable to halt the German advance.
The campaign began with the Bombing of Wieluń, a horrific Luftwaffe attack on an undefended town.
At dawn, German planes dropped over 380 bombs, killing more than 1,200 civilians and obliterating most of Wieluń.
This indiscriminate bombing was one of the first atrocities of the war, emphasizing the brutality of Germany's strategy.
Placement of German and Polish divisions on 1st September 1939, the start of the Battle of the Border. The Battle of the Border marked the invasion's main opening phase, with intense clashes along Poland's frontiers from September 1, 1939. German forces launched coordinated attacks, exploiting Blitzkrieg tactics to penetrate Polish defenses quickly. This distinct phase reflected Germany's aim to encircle Polish forces early, isolating them from effective reinforcements or retreat.
...inflict significant losses on German armor using anti-tank guns and well-prepared positions...
Meanwhile, battles erupted along the border. At Działoszyn, Polish forces resisted German advances, but the overwhelming strength of German troops forced them to retreat.
Fighting intensified at Chojnice, where German forces launched a key assault. Nearby, the Charge at Krojanty became legendary. Polish cavalry, armed with sabers and anti-tank rifles, attacked German infantry to delay their advance.
While effective in the short term, this engagement was later misrepresented as a futile charge against tanks.
Further north, the Battle of Mokra saw Polish forces inflict significant losses on German armor using anti-tank guns and well-prepared positions.
However, after heavy fighting, the Germans overcame the Polish defenders. In the Battle of Mława, Polish troops fortified key positions to block the advance of German mechanized forces.
Despite valiant resistance, Mława fell after prolonged fighting, along with nearby towns like Przasnysz and Ciechanów.
German troops in Chojnice during the Invasion of Poland. Chojnice was one of the invasion's earliest battlegrounds on September 1, 1939. German forces launched a rapid attack, destroying rail infrastructure to hinder Polish mobilization. The assault, part of the Blitzkrieg strategy, marked an early victory for the Wehrmacht, demonstrating the effectiveness of their coordinated air and ground offensives.
...held out despite relentless assaults...
In the south, Polish forces engaged in intense battles to protect critical areas. At Jordanów, fierce fighting delayed German troops, while at Góra Kamienska, Polish defenders tried to hold strategic high ground.
At Węgierska Górka, a small garrison resisted against overwhelming German forces for days, earning the area the nickname "the Polish Verdun."
Similarly, Polish forces at Borowa Góra held out despite relentless assaults, while in Katowice, civilians and militia fought alongside the military to defend the city.
In western Poland, the dense Tuchola Forest became the site of fierce combat, with Polish units attempting counterattacks despite being surrounded.
Clashes at Pszczyna and Mikołów highlighted the determination of Polish forces to protect southern regions, though both battles ultimately ended in German victories.
Polish prisoners of war in Tuchola Forest, 1939. The Tuchola Forest was the site of intense combat during the German invasion of Poland in September 1939. Encircled by German forces, Polish units from the Pomorze Army were overwhelmed by superior firepower. The dense terrain provided initial defensive advantages, but coordinated Blitzkrieg tactics eventually forced Polish forces into retreat.
...suffered immensely as German forces targeted towns and infrastructure...
The Slovak invasion, coordinated with Germany, added further pressure on Poland’s southern flank. Slovak forces advanced into Polish territory, diverting resources from key fronts.
Civilians suffered immensely as German forces targeted towns and infrastructure. The Bombing of Sulejów devastated the town, killing civilians and destroying key transport routes.
Throughout the Battle of the Border, Polish forces demonstrated remarkable resilience, but the disparity in equipment, numbers, and strategy was insurmountable. Germany’s air superiority and mechanized forces quickly overwhelmed Polish defenses.
By mid-September, German breakthroughs forced Polish troops to retreat, leaving civilians exposed to the horrors of modern warfare.
The Battle of the Border would mark the tragic beginning of Poland’s fall.
Naudiar Street in Sulejów after the German bombing. The synagogue can be seen in the distance. The bombing of Sulejów on 4th September 1939, was a devastating German air raid targeting the civilian population. The Luftwaffe reduced much of the town to rubble, killing hundreds, including refugees fleeing the advancing Wehrmacht. The attack exemplified the terror bombing strategy used to demoralize and disrupt Polish resistance.
https://sulejowhistoryczny.wordpress.com/tag/bombardowanie-sulejowa/
...overwhelming Polish defenders with heavy bombardments and encirclement tactics...
In early September 1939, Barak became a site of intense skirmishes as Polish units attempted to delay the rapid advance of German forces through central Poland.
The area played a crucial role in supporting operations around Tomaszów Mazowiecki, where heavy fighting occurred on the 6th-7th September.
German forces from the 10th Army targeted this key industrial town, overwhelming Polish defenders with heavy bombardments and encirclement tactics.
The Polish forces, though determined, suffered heavy losses, and the town fell after critical infrastructure was destroyed.
The aftermath of the German bombardment at Tomaszów Mazowiecki. In September 1939, Tomaszów Mazowiecki became a battleground during the German invasion of Poland. Fierce clashes occurred as Polish troops sought to delay the Wehrmacht's advance. Heavy fighting and bombing devastated the town, leaving significant destruction and civilian casualties. Ultimately, German forces overran the area, further solidifying their march toward Warsaw.
http://skansenpilicy.pl/rola-pilicy-w-dzialaniach-wojennych-wrzesien-1939/
...delaying actions were crucial in buying time for Polish forces to regroup...
An appeal from the president of Łódź, Jan Kwapiński, to the inhabitants, published on September 2, 1939 in "Kurier Łódzki". an Kwapiński, a Polish politician and activist, played a significant role in Łódź’s resistance during the German invasion. He organized underground efforts and defended workers’ rights before fleeing to continue resistance abroad.
Meanwhile, in the northeast, Goworowo saw clashes as Polish troops fell back toward the Narew River defensive positions.
These delaying actions were crucial in buying time for Polish forces to regroup and defend other critical areas like Różan and Łomża.
At Łódź, from September 6–8, German Blitzkrieg tactics overwhelmed Polish defenses in one of the most decisive battles of the campaign.
Łódź, an industrial hub of strategic importance, fell after intense fighting, leaving civilians vulnerable to the atrocities of occupation.
Near the Narew River, the Battle of Wizna, fought from the 7th - 10th September, became a symbol of heroic resistance.
A small Polish force led by Captain Władysław Raginis held off a vastly superior German army, delaying their advance and inflicting significant losses before being overrun.
Around the same time, Piotrków Trybunalski, an important transportation hub, came under relentless attack on the 5th-6th September.
Despite fierce resistance, Polish forces were forced to retreat under heavy German bombardments, allowing the enemy to advance deeper into central Poland.
Juliusz Heinzl's Palace in Łódź after the bombing. Juliusz Heinzl's Palace in Łódź, built in the late 19th century, was a symbol of the city’s industrial prosperity under its textile tycoon owner. Located on Piotrkowska Street, it featured neo-Renaissance architecture and served as a residence and administrative hub. By 1939, it remained a prominent landmark amid Łódź’s transformation.
...the Germans eventually breached the defences...
A German Panzer IV Ausf C at Łomża, Poland during the German invasion. The Battle of Łomża in 1939 saw Polish forces fiercely defending fortifications along the Narew River against German attacks. Despite limited resources, their resistance delayed German advances, showcasing Polish determination during the invasion.
Further north, Różan saw Polish forces attempt to defend their positions along the Narew River from the 4th-6th September.
Although the outdated fortifications briefly held, the Germans eventually breached the defences.
Nearby, in Pułtusk on the 6th-7th September, Polish troops used the natural terrain to slow the German advance.
However, relentless assaults forced a withdrawal, enabling the Germans to secure a key crossing.
To the south, Radom fell to the Germans on the 8th September after brief delaying actions by Polish defenders.
The city’s strategic road and railway networks contributed to the German encirclement of Polish forces.
At Łomża, from the 7th - 10th September, Polish troops fought bravely to hold the Narew River line.
Despite makeshift defenses, they were eventually forced to retreat, slowing but not halting the German advance.
The aftermath of the fighting around Różan. The fighting at Różan in 1939 involved Polish forces defending strategic Narew River crossings against German assaults. The Narew River crossing was vital for controlling access to central Poland, enabling troop movements and delaying German advances during the invasion.
...intense combat to prevent German crossings...
Smaller villages like Wola Cyrusowa also saw clashes as the retreating Polish Łódź Army fought rearguard actions to protect their forces retreating toward Warsaw.
In Ostrołęka, near the Narew River, Polish troops engaged in intense combat to prevent German crossings but were forced to fall back after sustained bombardments and mechanized assaults.
In Nadbory, Polish forces engaged in rearguard actions during their retreat toward the Bug River.
These skirmishes helped delay German advances, allowing other units to regroup.
Further east, Siedlce became a critical point during the Polish retreat in mid-September.
As German forces sought to cut off regrouping Polish units, heavy fighting ensued, reflecting the desperate struggle to maintain a defensive line against overwhelming odds.
A "souvenir photograph” of a German officer commanding the operation of destroying the synagogue in Siedice. Polish forces resisted fiercely during the invasion but were overwhelmed, and the town endured occupation and destruction, with the Jewish community being particularly targeted.
Walther von Brauchitsch and Adolf Hitler in Poland. Walther von Brauchitsch, as the Commander-in-Chief of the German Army, played a crucial role in the Invasion of Poland in 1939. He oversaw the military operations and strategic planning, ensuring the swift and effective execution of the campaign. His leadership contributed significantly to the German victory and the subsequent occupation of Poland.
...the defenders were outgunned and eventually overwhelmed...
The invasion of Poland in 1939 saw intense fighting and significant events unfold across numerous locations. At Seroczyn, Polish forces engaged in a fierce battle on September 9–10 to halt the advancing German troops.
Despite their valiant efforts, the defenders were outgunned and eventually overwhelmed, further demonstrating the imbalance between Polish and German military strength.
The Siege of Warsaw began on the 8th September, as German forces encircled the capital. The city endured relentless bombing, artillery shelling, and ground assaults, yet its defenders and civilians exhibited incredible resilience.
During this time, Julien Bryan, an American photographer, documented the horrors of the siege.
His images, including the poignant photograph of Kazimiera Kostewicz mourning her sister killed in an air raid, captured the human cost of war and brought global attention to the suffering of Polish civilians.
Julien Bryan with crying Kazimiera Kostewicz, sister of Anna Kostewicz killed in an air attack on a field near the intersection of Ostroroga and Wawrzyszewska Streets, 9th September 1939. Kazimiera Kostewicz's harrowing experience during the Invasion of Poland symbolized the widespread suffering of the Polish people. Witnessed grieving over her sister's body, killed by a Luftwaffe pilot, her pain was captured in iconic photographs by Julien Bryan. This image highlighted the brutal impact of the invasion on civilians, embodying the anguish and devastation faced by countless Polish families.
AIPN / Julien Bryan Collection in Warsaw
https://eng.ipn.gov.pl/en/news/4559,The-Siege-of-Warsaw-in-Julien-Bryan039s-photographs.html
...defenders put up stiff resistance...
Kałuszyn saw significant clashes during the German advance, with Polish forces attempting to delay their progression on the 11th September.
The defenders put up stiff resistance but faced heavy casualties as the Germans pressed forward.
In Węgrów, similar defensive actions unfolded, showcasing the determination of Polish troops even as their strategic positions became increasingly untenable.
Meanwhile, the largest battle of the campaign, the Battle of the Bzura (September 9–19), involved a massive Polish counteroffensive aimed at halting the German advance toward Warsaw.
Though initially successful, the Poles were eventually encircled and defeated after suffering devastating losses.
Polish artillery involved in the Battle of Bzura after an air attack. An abandoned Polish Bofors AA gun and a bombed column of Polish Army can be seen.
Map showing the Polish assault southwards. The Battle of Bzura (September 9–19, 1939) was the largest Polish counteroffensive during the German invasion of Poland. Led by Generals Tadeusz Kutrzeba and Władysław Bortnowski, Polish forces launched a surprise attack, initially gaining ground against German divisions. However, the Wehrmacht regrouped, using superior airpower and reinforcements to encircle and crush Polish troops. Despite their eventual defeat, the battle delayed German advances toward Warsaw, showcasing Polish determination and inflicting significant losses on the German forces.
...with Polish forces retreating in the face of overwhelming Soviet and German pressure...
At Modlin Fortress, defenders held out against German assaults until late September.
The fortress, crucial for defending Warsaw's northern approaches, became a symbol of Polish endurance but eventually fell on the 29th September after prolonged bombardment.
Farther east, Kobryń saw intense fighting from the 14th - 18th September as Polish troops attempted to hold back German and Soviet forces converging on the region.
Similarly, Brześć Litewski fell after a determined defense, with Polish forces retreating in the face of overwhelming Soviet and German pressure.
Modlin Fortress in 1939. Modlin Fortress, located near Warsaw, played a crucial defensive role during the German invasion of Poland in 1939. Under heavy siege from September 13 to 29, Polish forces, commanded by General Wiktor Thommée, valiantly defended the stronghold despite relentless German bombardments and encirclement. The fortress’s resistance tied down significant German resources, delaying their advance. Modlin surrendered two days after Warsaw fell, making it one of the last Polish positions to capitulate, symbolizing Poland’s determination amid overwhelming odds.
...exhausted and surrounded, fought valiantly but ultimately surrendered...
The second battle of Tomaszów Lubelski (23rd-26th September) marked one of the final major engagements of the campaign.
Polish forces, exhausted and surrounded, fought valiantly but ultimately surrendered.
Nearby, Wólka Węglowa witnessed a daring breakout attempt by Polish troops encircled near Warsaw.
This maneuver allowed some units to escape to the Kampinos Forest, where they continued guerrilla resistance.
The forest itself became a significant site for partisan activity, as soldiers and civilians sought to resist the occupiers.
A Nazi propaganda poster produced during the invasion., showing an injured Polish soldier berating a disinterested Neville Chamberlain. In reality though, Chamberlain outright condemned Germany's aggression. On the 3rd September, he honoured Britain’s pledge to Poland by declaring war on Germany alongside France. Chamberlain’s actions marked the end of appeasement policies, initiating Britain’s active involvement in the Second World War.
...German forces encountered stubborn resistance...
The grave of a German soldier died at Krasnobród. The Battle of Krasnobród saw Polish cavalry clash with German forces. Despite being outnumbered, Polish troops achieved a brief victory before ultimately retreating.
In Krasnystaw, German forces encountered stubborn resistance as Polish units defended the region during their retreat eastward.
Łomianki became a key site for regrouping Polish forces as they sought to organize defenses closer to the capital.
At Krasnobród, Polish cavalry engaged in one of the final cavalry charges of the war on September 23, achieving a brief victory against German troops before being forced to retreat.
The campaign culminated in the Battle of Kock (3rd - 5th October), where the Polish Independent Operational Group "Polesie" under General Franciszek Kleeberg mounted a last stand.
Despite their determination and tactical success, the forces were ultimately forced to surrender, marking the tragic end of Poland's defensive campaign.
A set of maps illustrating the German invasion of Poland. The German invasion of Poland on the 1st September 1939, employed a Blitzkrieg strategy, combining rapid armored assaults, air superiority, and mechanized infantry to encircle and destroy Polish forces. Germany’s three-pronged attack overwhelmed Poland’s defenses, while the Soviet Union’s eastward invasion sealed its fate, leading to Poland’s swift defeat and partition.
...in an unholy alliance with their soon to be enemies...
On the Southern Front, the Polish actions at the Przemyśl managed to delay the German advance for three days and Tomaszów Lubelski saw the biggest tank battle of the entire campaign, although the Germans continued to grind down the Polish defenders and gradually conquer more and more territory.
In the air, the outnumbered Polish air force, often flying obsolete aircraft, bravely took on the mighty Luftwaffe, flying modern and well-equipped aircraft, with many of its pilots having gained valuable experience serving in the Spanish Civil War.
As a further blow, the Soviets – in an unholy alliance with their soon to be enemies – briefly allied with Nazi Germany to divide up Poland – as agreed in the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact, and launched their attack on Poland on the 17th September, using it as an opportunity to settle historical scores with their old adversary.
The German invasion of Poland was not just a military campaign but a harrowing ordeal for everyone caught in its path—soldiers, civilians, journalists, and aid workers.
Adolf Hitler (right) prepares to fly to the Polish front, 1939. Adolf Hitler orchestrated the invasion of Poland on the 1st September 1939, as part of his expansionist vision for Lebensraum in Eastern Europe. Employing Blitzkrieg tactics, he aimed for swift conquest. The invasion, justified by staged provocations like the Gleiwitz incident, marked the start of the Second World War and Poland’s devastation.
Hugo Jaeger—The LIFE Picture Collection/Shutterstock
https://www.life.com/history/world-war-ii-erupts-color-photos-from-the-invasion-of-poland-1939/
...a harrowing ordeal for everyone...
The German invasion proved to be a brutal introduction to the human cost of the Second World War.
German troops, many young and inexperienced, were thrust into the chaos of Blitzkrieg. Some were exhilarated by swift victories, but others were horrified by the carnage.
A German soldier wrote in his diary about Polish villages set ablaze and the sight of terrified families fleeing with carts piled high with possessions.
Many soldiers struggled with orders to execute prisoners or civilians suspected of resistance, an early glimpse of the atrocities to come.
A Newspaper report detailing civilian casualties in Wilno. Civilian casualties during the invasion of Poland often hardened German resolve but also caused logistical challenges. The destruction of infrastructure and mass displacement complicated supply lines. Widespread civilian suffering fueled Polish resistance, creating hostility toward German occupiers, which later manifested in partisan warfare, disrupting German control in occupied territories.
https://www.newspapers.com/article/times-colonist-newspaper-article-reports/33075656/
The graves of German soldiers in Spytkowice church cemetery, Poland. While the Invasion of Poland is generally remembered as an overwhelming German victory (albeit one they achieved with the help of the Soviet Union and Slovakia), it is easy to forget that the Germans suffered losses too. German casualties totaled approximately 16,000 killed and 28,000 wounded. While the blitzkrieg strategy achieved rapid success, fierce Polish resistance inflicted significant losses, delaying German advances and disrupting their strategic timetable.
...often poorly equipped and outgunned...
Polish defenders, despite their courage, faced impossible odds.
Soldiers, often poorly equipped and outgunned, fought valiantly in isolated units.
Survivors of battles like the defence of Westerplatte, where outnumbered Polish forces held out against relentless German bombardment for seven days, recounted the terror of constant shelling and the heartbreak of seeing comrades fall.
Civilians endured unimaginable suffering. Entire towns were reduced to rubble as the Luftwaffe bombed indiscriminately.
Refugees clogged roads, desperate to escape advancing armies, only to face strafing attacks from German planes.
Stories emerged of mothers shielding children with their bodies and families huddling in forests to escape the violence.
Two Polish mothers pose with their newborn infants during the siege of Warsaw. Polish civilians endured immense suffering during the German invasion, facing relentless bombings, massacres, and displacement. Cities were destroyed, lives uprooted, and millions fell victim to German atrocities.
Julien Bryan
Polish Prisoners of War are escorted away from the front by Wehrmacht soldiers, 1939. During the invasion of Poland, approximately 694,000 Polish soldiers were captured—420,000 by Nazi Germany and 240,000 by the Soviet Union. Many faced execution, forced labor, or imprisonment. Notable atrocities included the Katyn Massacre, where the Soviets executed 22,000 Polish officers. Thousands endured brutal conditions in Nazi and Soviet camps.
...documented the unfolding tragedy...
Julien Bryan. His photographs taken during the Siege of Warsaw captured the bravery and suffering of those caught up in the German invasion.
Journalists and Red Cross workers documented the unfolding tragedy.
American correspondent Julien Bryan, in Warsaw, described the city under siege: burning buildings, craters in the streets, and residents digging graves amid air raids.
Red Cross workers risked their lives to deliver aid, often arriving too late to save victims of the bombings.
The invasion of Poland was a devastating human tragedy, marking the beginning of a war that would engulf millions in suffering.
The Invasion of Poland (1939): Every Hour - produced by Yan Xishan
Hell in Warsaw
The Siege of Warsaw in 1939 stands as a stark illustration of the ferocity and devastation of modern warfare.
It began on the 8th September 1939, shortly after German forces launched their invasion of Poland.
Warsaw, the Polish capital, quickly became a focal point of the German assault due to its strategic and symbolic significance.
Polish civilians battling a fire in the aftermath of a German bombing raid. The Luftwaffe played a decisive role during the Siege of Warsaw in 1939, conducting relentless aerial bombardments that devastated the city. Their attacks targeted military positions, infrastructure, and civilian areas, aiming to crush Polish resistance and morale. These indiscriminate bombings caused widespread destruction, high civilian casualties, and expedited Warsaw’s surrender.
...aimed at crippling Warsaw's defences...
As German troops advanced, the Luftwaffe initiated relentless aerial bombardments aimed at crippling Warsaw's defences and infrastructure.
The city's inhabitants endured harrowing conditions, with bombs raining down, causing widespread destruction and chaos.
Despite limited resources and overwhelming odds, the Polish defenders, led by General Walerian Czuma, mounted a staunch resistance against the invading forces.
Ten-year-old Zygmunt Aksienow with the canary in the cage, corner of Wójtowska and Przyrynek Streets in Warsaw's New Town, September 1939
AIPN, Julien Bryan Collection in Warsaw
https://eng.ipn.gov.pl/en/news/4559,The-Siege-of-Warsaw-in-Julien-Bryan039s-photographs.html
The inhabitants of Warsaw in September 1939. During the Siege of Warsaw in 1939, civilians endured relentless bombing, artillery shelling, and severe shortages of food and water. Many homes, hospitals, and cultural landmarks were destroyed, causing immense suffering and fear. Approximately 18,000 civilians lost their lives, and survivors faced harrowing conditions amidst widespread devastation.
AIPN / Julien Bryan Collection in Warsaw
https://eng.ipn.gov.pl/en/news/4559,The-Siege-of-Warsaw-in-Julien-Bryan039s-photographs.html
...faced constant attacks...
The siege lasted until the 28th September 1939.
Throughout this period, Warsaw's defenders and civilian population faced constant attacks, including artillery shelling and air raids.
The German military employed a combination of ground and air assaults, systematically targeting key locations to weaken Warsaw's resolve.
Civilians suffered greatly, with many homes, hospitals, and cultural landmarks reduced to rubble.
A girl holding her dog views the destruction by German air raids during the siege of Warsaw. 8 Żelazna Street, Warsaw.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Warsaw-1939_64467_%28color%29.jpg
The construction of fortifications and street traffic in Warsaw's Praga district near Zygmuntowska Street (today a part of Solidarności Avenue) and Weteranów 1863 Square. During the Siege of Warsaw, civilians and soldiers rapidly constructed makeshift fortifications using available materials like sandbags, debris, and furniture. These improvised defenses, including barricades and trenches, were essential in resisting the relentless German assaults. Despite their temporary nature, these fortifications played a crucial role in the city's defense.
AIPN / Julien Bryan Collection in Warsaw
https://eng.ipn.gov.pl/en/news/4559,The-Siege-of-Warsaw-in-Julien-Bryan039s-photographs.html
...the relentless German onslaught...
Despite their valiant efforts, the defenders of Warsaw were gradually worn down by the relentless German onslaught.
Food and water shortages compounded the dire situation, exacerbating the suffering of the civilian population.
On the 27th September, after enduring nearly three weeks of constant bombardment and ground attacks, Warsaw's defenders were forced to negotiate a ceasefire.
German troops near Warsaw. Late September 1939. German troops played a pivotal role in the Siege of Warsaw, encircling the city and conducting relentless ground assaults. Backed by artillery and Luftwaffe air support, they aimed to overwhelm Polish defenses. Despite facing fierce resistance from Polish soldiers and civilians, the Germans employed ruthless tactics, including indiscriminate shelling of civilian areas. Their coordinated efforts and superior firepower ultimately forced Warsaw’s surrender on September 28, 1939, marking a significant victory in the invasion of Poland.
Photograph: Wojskowa Agencja Fotograficzna. Public Domain
https://www.annefrank.org/en/timeline/24/the-start-of-the-second-world-war-germany-invades-poland/
...a devastating blow to Poland...
The formal surrender of Warsaw took place on the 28th September 1939.
The city's fall marked a significant victory for Germany and a devastating blow to Poland.
The aftermath of the siege saw approximately 18,000 civilians dead and substantial portions of Warsaw left in ruins.
The destruction inflicted during the siege was a grim precursor to the extensive devastation that would befall Europe in the years to come.
A panoramic shot of an occupied and devstated Warsaw in October 1939. In the immediate aftermath of Warsaw's surrender on September 28, 1939, the city lay in ruins. Buildings were destroyed, streets were filled with rubble, and smoke lingered in the air. The civilian population, weary and traumatized, faced immense hardship amid the widespread devastation and the onset of brutal German occupation.
The Defeat and Surrender of Poland
By late September 1939, it was clear that Poland's resistance against the German and Soviet invasions was untenable.
Despite valiant efforts by its defenders, the country was outmatched militarily, technologically, and strategically.
German forces executed their Blitzkrieg with ruthless efficiency, while Soviet troops poured into Poland’s eastern territories on the 17th September, sealing its fate.
The final days of the campaign were marked by desperate but courageous resistance. In Warsaw, citizens and soldiers alike endured relentless bombardments by the Luftwaffe and artillery.
By the 27th of September, the Polish capital, reduced to rubble, was forced to surrender. Elsewhere, the Battle of Kock (October 2–5), fought by General Franciszek Kleeberg’s troops, became the last significant engagement.
When his forces ran out of ammunition, Kleeberg surrendered on the 6th October, marking the end of organized Polish resistance.
Last of Polish army surrenders on the 6th October, 1939, ending the fighting.
Oakland Tribune
Polish prisoners being searched during the Invasion of Poland. Until February 1940, the German authorities gave the International Committee of the Red Cross lists of the Polish prisoners of war they held, but after that date they stopped. In 1943, they again began to send these lists, but now only officers were mentioned. What had happened was that most of the Polish soldiers who became prisoners of war were turned into "civilian workers" by the German authorities. They were thus - in defiance of the 1929 Convention relative to the treatment of prisoners of war - deprived of their prisoner-of-war status and of the protection this should have afforded them. Prisoners of war who refused to become " civilian workers " were mostly sent to concentration camps. In this way, the ICRC lost track of a large number of them.
...casualties were devastating...
Destroyed city blocks in Warsaw after a German bombing, September 1939.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Warsaw_in_World_War_II
The human toll of the invasion was catastrophic.
Poland suffered 200,000 military casualties, including 66,000 dead and 133,000 wounded, with an additional 694,000 soldiers captured by Germany and the Soviet Union.
Civilian casualties were devastating, with estimates of 150,000–200,000 killed during the campaign. German forces lost approximately 17,000 troops, while Soviet losses were fewer but remain unclear.
The war left a trail of devastation across Poland.
Cities like Warsaw were heavily bombed, with 85% of its infrastructure destroyed. Railways, roads, and factories were targeted, crippling Poland's economy.
Entire villages were burned, displacing millions of refugees who flooded into neighbouring countries like Romania and Hungary or sought sanctuary further afield in France and Britain.
The results of German bombardment at 10 Radzymińska Street in Warsaw. September 1939. Visible Polish pilot on the left side. During the invasion of Poland, Warsaw endured relentless German bombardments, including Luftwaffe air raids and heavy artillery. The siege began on the 8th September 1939, and despite heroic resistance by Polish defenders and civilians, the city fell on the 27th September. Over 85% of its infrastructure was destroyed, leaving residents to face immense suffering and marking the start of Nazi occupation.
Kodak Kodachrome genuine color photo by Julien Bryan
...lack of intervention left Poland isolated and betrayed...
The international reaction to Poland’s defeat was muted and largely symbolic.
Britain and France, honouring their defence pact with Poland, had declared war on Germany on 3rd September 1939, but provided little military support.
The so-called “Phoney War” ensued on the Western Front, with no significant Allied offensives to alleviate Poland’s plight.
The Soviet invasion on the 17th September elicited outrage but no direct action. Western powers were reluctant to confront the USSR, prioritizing their focus on Germany.
This lack of intervention left Poland isolated and betrayed, its pleas for immediate help unanswered.
English soldiers during the Phoney war in 1939. Their relaxed, smiling demeanors reflect the lack of military action taking place. The Phoney War saw Britain and France declare war on Germany after Poland’s invasion but take no significant military action. This lack of intervention left Poland isolated, enabling Germany to focus its forces on rapid conquest. Polish pleas for Allied support went unanswered, deepening the sense of betrayal and abandonment.
German and Soviet soldiers socializing with each other at the end of the Invasion of Poland, 1939. The combined German and Soviet invasions in September 1939 left Poland with little chance of survival. Germany’s Blitzkrieg overwhelmed Polish defenses in the west, while the Soviet Union’s eastern attack on September 17 divided Polish forces. Encircled and outmatched, Poland faced overwhelming firepower, modern tactics, and numerical superiority from both aggressors.
https://www.reddit.com/r/europe/comments/121fbyj/nazi_and_soviet_troops_celebrating_together_after/
...erased Poland as a sovereign state...
With Poland’s surrender on the 6th October 6, its land was divided between Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia under the terms of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.
Germany took western and central Poland, including Warsaw, while the Soviet Union annexed the eastern regions.
This division erased Poland as a sovereign state and subjected its people to years of brutality.
The Germans implemented their plans for domination with ruthless speed.
They established a new administrative entity, the General Government, in central Poland, led by Hans Frank.
This regime oversaw systematic oppression, including mass executions, forced labor, and the persecution of Jews.
Entire sections of society—intellectuals, clergy, and political leaders—were rounded up and executed to eliminate potential resistance.
Hans Frank, Head of General Government Poland, at a police parade in Kraków (1942). Frank oversaw mass executions, forced labor, and the exploitation of resources. He facilitated the Holocaust, establishing ghettos and supporting the deportation of Jews to death camps.
German soldiers in a cordon before the start of a military parade in occupied Warsaw, 5th October, 1939. The devastation to the city can clearly be seen behind the lines of soldiers.
With the surrender of Poland on 6th October 1939, the country was divided between Germany and the Soviet Union.
...a campaign of mass violence and repression...
Jewish residents of the Kutno Ghetto in Poland. Many Polish Jews found themselves forced into crowded ghettos after the German Invasion of Poland.
https://www.life.com/history/world-war-ii-color-photos-from-nazi-occupied-poland-1939-1940/
What followed was six years of torment for the Polish people.
Their country torn apart and occupied; entire sections of the population forced into slave labour, imprisoned in concentration camps, or simply murdered; brutal treatment handed out by both Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia.
The surrender marked the start of a long reign of terror for its people. Nazi Germany initiated a campaign of mass violence and repression.
Jews were forced into ghettos, with cities like Warsaw and Kraków becoming centres of suffering. Intellectuals, priests, and political activists were systematically targeted in the AB-Aktion, a program of executions aimed at eliminating Poland’s elite.
Meanwhile, the Soviet occupation in the east was no less brutal.
The Soviet occupiers mirrored the Nazi atrocities. Tens of thousands of Poles were deported to Siberia and Central Asia, while others were imprisoned or executed, such as the Katyn Massacre of 1940, where 22,000 Polish officers and intellectuals were murdered.
Families were torn apart as the invaders-turned occupiers sought to crush Polish identity.
Deportation of Polish Jews from the Łódź ghetto to the Chełmno killing center, April 1942. After the German invasion, Poland's Jewish population—then Europe's largest—faced brutal persecution. Jews were forced into overcrowded ghettos like those in Warsaw and Kraków, enduring starvation, disease, and forced labor. By 1941, mass deportations to extermination camps such as Auschwitz and Treblinka began under the Final Solution, resulting in the deaths of approximately 3 million Polish Jews. The Holocaust devastated Jewish communities, erasing centuries of cultural and historical legacy in Poland.
US Holocaust Memorial Museum, courtesy of Robert Abrams
https://medium.com/memory-action/rare-color-photos-show-ghetto-in-different-light-caa6c9bf6440
...a day-by-day struggle to survive...
The very existence of Poland came into doubt.
A lucky few managed to escape to friendly countries and carry on the fight from afar, but for many—trapped in occupied territory—it became a day-by-day struggle to survive.
However, Poland’s defeat was not the end of its people’s resilience. Many Poles would serve in Allies and take the fight to the Nazis directly.
Underground resistance networks, such as the Home Army (Armia Krajowa), emerged to fight against the occupiers.
Despite their suffering, the Polish spirit endured, setting the stage for a long and painful struggle for liberation.
303 squadron pilots. From the left side: P/O Ferić, F/Lt Kent, F/O Grzeszczak, P/O Radomski, P/O Zumbach, P/O Łukuciewski, F/O Henneberg, Sgt. Rogowski, Sgt. Szaposznikow
in 1940. The pilots of 303 Squadron RAF, composed mainly of Polish airmen who had escaped the clutches of the invading Nazis, epitomized Polish determination to fight on after their homeland's fall. Distinguished in the Battle of Britain, they showcased exceptional skill and bravery, becoming one of the RAF's top-performing units. Their relentless courage symbolized Poland’s enduring resistance against tyranny.
Further reading
Colourisers
Sources:
https://www.wbur.org/hereandnow/2019/09/06/poland-world-war-two
https://pavelnkhv.tumblr.com/tagged/wwii
https://neverwasmag.com/poland-1939-map/
Life Magazine (August 28, 1944)
https://bellasvitas.blogspot.com/2009/11/map-of-poland-1939.html
https://discover.hubpages.com/education/The-Other-Face-of-Hitler
Last of Polish army surrenders on October 6, 1939, ending the invasion - Newspapers.com
https://audiovis.nac.gov.pl/obraz/231/
BBC - History - World Wars: Invasion of Poland
Bradley Lightbody
hitler-attacks-poland-ff.jpg (629×800) (mitchellarchives.com)
