The Interwar period
Upheaval and conflict across the globe
The Interbellum or Interwar covered the period from the 1918 to 1936.
It was a time of great change and upheaval as the world, and Europe in particular, struggled to recover from devastating effects of the First World War, in which millions had died and enormous destruction had occurred.
Some countries found much of their infrastructure wrecked and their economy in tatters - war is expensive after all.
A map of Europe in 1923.
United States Library of Congress
The guns fall silent
In the final months of the First World War, the tide of the conflict shifted dramatically, marking the beginning of the end for the Central Powers and ultimately leading to the signing of the Armistice.
As the year 1918 progressed, a series of pivotal events unfolded, shaping the course of the war and setting the stage for its conclusion.
One of the most significant turning points came with the Allied Hundred Days Offensive, launched in August 1918.
This massive coordinated offensive, led primarily by British, French, and American forces, inflicted heavy losses on the German army and steadily pushed them back along the Western Front.
German prisoners of war during the First World War.
Imperial War Museum
..."Black Day of the German Army."..
The Allies achieved numerous decisive victories, including the Battle of Amiens in August, often described as the "Black Day of the German Army," due to the substantial German casualties and the significant territorial gains made by the Allies.
French cavalry cross a stream during the Battle of the Somme, 1916.
...further eroded Germany's position...
The momentum of the Allied advance continued to build throughout September and October, with a series of successful offensives that further weakened German defences and morale.
The Battle of Cambrai and the breaking of the Hindenburg Line were among the key milestones during this period, underscoring the relentless pressure exerted by the Allied forces.
Meanwhile, on the Eastern Front, the collapse of the Central Powers' ally, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, further eroded Germany's position.
The disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian state led to a swift Allied advance into the Balkans and the eventual surrender of Austria-Hungary in early November 1918.
A German prisoner and a wounded British soldier lighting cigarettes at an advanced dressing station. Epehy, France, 1918. Colorised by Julius Colorization.
27 Stunning Photos of World War One in Color (historydefined.net)
...a dramatic shift in the balance of power...
By early November, the situation for Germany had become increasingly untenable.
The exhaustion of its military resources, combined with internal unrest and the threat of revolution at home, forced German leaders to seek an end to the war.
Negotiations for an armistice began, culminating in the signing of the Armistice of Compiègne on the 11th November 1918, effectively ending hostilities on the Western Front.
The last few months of the ‘Great War’ witnessed a dramatic shift in the balance of power, as Allied offensives and internal turmoil within the Central Powers hastened the end of the conflict, bringing an end to one of the deadliest conflicts in human history.
Celebrations in the U.S. following the end of the First World War. - Soldiers and civilians waving the Union Jack and stars and stripes.
Peace at a price
The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 marked a pivotal moment in global diplomacy following the end of the First World War.
Held at the Palace of Versailles in France, the conference aimed to negotiate peace terms and establish a new international order in the aftermath of the devastating conflict.
Attended by representatives from over 30 nations, the conference was dominated by the victorious Allied powers, namely the United States, France, Britain, and Italy.
The Big Four at the Paris Peace Conference: From left to right, British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando. French Premier Georges Clemenceau, and US President Woodrow Wilson.
How were the decisions being made at the Paris Peace Conference? | Europe Centenary
...imposed harsh terms on Germany,...
The key figures at the conference included US President Woodrow Wilson, British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, French Premier Georges Clemenceau, and Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando.
The conference focused on drafting peace treaties with the defeated Central Powers, particularly Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire.
The Treaty of Versailles, signed with Germany in June 1919, was the most significant outcome of the conference.
It imposed harsh terms on Germany, including territorial losses, demilitarization, war guilt clauses, and heavy reparations payments, which fueled resentment and laid the groundwork for future conflicts.
Delegates at the Paris Peace Conference.
The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 - History (historyonthenet.com)
...redrew the map of Europe...
Apart from the Treaty of Versailles, several other treaties were negotiated at the Paris Peace Conference, including the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye with Austria, the Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine with Bulgaria, the Treaty of Trianon with Hungary, and the Treaty of Sèvres with the Ottoman Empire.
These treaties redrew the map of Europe, dismantled empires, and established new nation-states, albeit with varying degrees of success and controversy.
...vision for a new world order...
One of the most contentious issues at the conference was President Wilson's vision for a new world order based on his Fourteen Points, which emphasized principles such as self-determination, disarmament, and the establishment of a League of Nations to maintain peace and security.
While some of Wilson's proposals were incorporated into the peace treaties, many were compromised or rejected due to conflicting national interests and power struggles among the Allied leaders.
The Treaty of Versailles: French Premier Clemenceau addressing the German Delegates prior to delivering the peace treaty at the Trianon Palace Hotel, Versailles, France. 1919.
Treaty Of Versailles, 1919 #9 Photograph by Granger - Fine Art America
Despite its aspirations for lasting peace, the Paris Peace Conference ultimately left unresolved tensions and grievances that would contribute to future conflicts, including the Second World War.
Nevertheless, it represented a significant attempt to address the aftermath of the First World War and shape the course of international relations in the 20th century.
European turmoil
The years 1918–1924 were turbulent after the Armistice and Europe particularly. was in turmoil.
The Russian Civil War raged on and Eastern Europe struggled to recover from the devastation of the First World War and the destabilising effects of not only the collapse of the Russian Empire but the subsequent ideological divide, fueling fears of communism among Western powers.
The Russian Revolution would, nonetheless, inspire communist movements across Europe, leading to revolutionary upheavals in countries such as Germany, Hungary, and Italy.
In Germany, the Spartacist uprising of 1919 and the Kapp Putsch of 1920 highlighted the fragility of the Weimar Republic and the threat posed by extremist groups.
The Brigade Erhardt in Berlin during the Kapp Putsch. The Kapp Putsch was a 1920 attempted coup in Weimar Germany, led by Wolfgang Kapp and Freikorps, aiming to overthrow the government. It collapsed due to civilian resistance, strike actions, and lack of military support.
Revolutionary History: 100th Anniversary of the Kapp Putsch in Germany - China Worker
Bundesarchiv Bild 183-H25109
The destruction of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the Ottoman Empire. led to the emergence of new nation-states in Eastern Europe, but also sparked ethnic conflicts and border disputes.
The Irish War of Independence, the Greco-Turkish War, and the Polish-Soviet War were among the many conflicts that erupted during this period, further exacerbating Europe's instability.
The now-defunct German Empire redistributed its colonies to the Allies, with Britain as the largest beneficiary.
In addition, the western parts of the Russian Empire became independent nations. As a result, Poland and Estonia became independent. Bessarabia, another country that gained independence, chose to reunite with Romania.
The Czech Republic emerged as an independent state, formed from the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, with Prague as its capital.
In Southern, Central, and Eastern Europe, there were several new or restored nations, some minor like Lithuania or Latvia, others larger like Poland and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes.
A 'Black and Tan's man in uniform on duty, smoking and posing with a Lewis gun, during the Irish War of Independence, Dublin, circa 1920. The Irish War of Independence (1919-1921) was a guerrilla conflict between Irish republicans and British forces, culminating in the Anglo-Irish Treaty, which paved the way for the creation of the Irish Free State.
The Black and Tans were temporary constables recruited by the British government during the Irish War of Independence, known for their brutality and reprisal attacks against Irish civilians.
Vintage: Irish War of Independence (1919-1921) | MONOVISIONS - Black & White Photography Magazine
Cafeterie on the Nowy Świat Street, Warsaw, Poland during the 1930s. The Polish Second Republic was created after the turmoil of the First World War and resulting political changes to the European map.
Poland during the interwar period [1920s-1930s].... - lamus dworski (tumblr.com)
Rolls Royce armoured car from the Section employed to patrol between Cairo and Tanta to to quell riots during the Egyptian Revolution during 1919.
The Egyptian Revolution was a mass uprising against British colonial rule, sparked by discontent over wartime conditions and demands for independence, ultimately leading to limited constitutional reforms.
THE EGYPTIAN REVOLUTION, 1919 | Imperial War Museums (iwm.org.uk)
Nationalist sentiments surged across colonial territories, challenging the dominance of European imperial powers.
In India, the disillusionment with British rule was palpable, fueled by factors such as economic exploitation, cultural suppression, and the denial of political rights.
Mahatma Gandhi emerged as a prominent leader of the Indian National Congress, advocating for nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience to achieve independence.
Similarly, in Egypt, resentment against British control grew, fueled by Egypt's involvement in the war effort and the imposition of British influence over Egyptian affairs.
The 1919 Egyptian Revolution, sparked by discontent with British occupation, demanded independence and self-governance. Although full independence was not achieved until later, the uprising marked a significant step towards decolonization.
In Ireland, the Easter Rising of 1916 and subsequent War of Independence signaled a bold rejection of British rule.
A map of colonial India in 1893. After the First World War, Indian nationalism surged, fueled by disillusionment with British colonial rule and promises of self-governance. Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi mobilized nonviolent resistance through civil disobedience, sparking mass protests and movements, ultimately culminating in India's independence in 1947 after decades of struggle and sacrifice.
Constable's Hand Atlas of India, John Bartholomew and Son
The Irish Republican Army (IRA) waged a guerrilla campaign against British forces, seeking to establish an independent Irish Republic.
Despite the brutal suppression of the rebellion, the desire for self-determination persisted, ultimately leading to the establishment of the Irish Free State in 1922.
These anti-colonial movements challenged the legitimacy of European imperialism, highlighting the inherent contradictions of colonial rule and the aspirations of colonized peoples for freedom and self-determination.
Berliners crossing the street close to the Brandenburg Gate. In the 1920s, Germany faced economic instability due to war reparations. The Dawes Plan of 1924 aimed to alleviate this burden by restructuring payments and facilitating loans, stabilizing Germany's economy temporarily.
30 Vintage Photographs Captured Street Scenes of Berlin in the 1920s ~ Vintage Everyday
The nationalist fervor sweeping through colonial territories during this period would eventually contribute to the unraveling of European empires and the emergence of new independent nations in the decades that followed.
American financial domination expanded globally., therefore, the Americans devised the Dawes Plan and Wall Street heavily invested in Germany when Germany could no longer afford war reparations to Britain, France, and other former members of the Entente.
Germany then repaid its reparations to nations, which in turn used the dollars to pay off their war debts to Washington.
The second half of the decade, known as the Roaring Twenties, began when affluence had spread by the latter part of the decade.
US Politican Charles Dawes who created the Dawes Plan. Introduced in 1924, it aimed to address Germany's post-First World War economic crisis by restructuring reparations payments and facilitating foreign loans.
International relations
International Relations took centre stage:
- The resolution of post-First World War issues, such as reparations owed by Germany and border disputes.
- American involvement in European financial and disarmament initiatives.
- The expectations and shortcomings of the League of Nations.
- The often tense and changeable relationships between new and old countries.
- The Soviet Union's scepticism of the capitalist world, peace and disarmament efforts.
- International responses to the Great Depression
- Border disputes between the Soviet Union and Japan and Japanese aggression toward China, which resulted in the occupation of a significant portion of Chinese territory, as well as several confrontations along the Soviet and Japanese-occupied Manchurian border.
- Fascist diplomacy, which included the aggressive actions of Mussolini's Italy and Hitler's Germany.
German troops entering the Rhineland in 1936. The remilitarization of the Rhineland in 1936 by Nazi Germany violated treaties and heightened tensions in Europe, undermining stability and emboldening Hitler's expansionist ambitions, which ultimately contributed to the outbreak of the Second World War.
- The Spanish Civil War.
- Italy's invasion and occupation of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in the Horn of Africa.
- the appeasement of Germany's expansionist actions against the German-speaking nation of Austria; the disputed region of Sudetenland, which is home to ethnic Germans in Czechoslovakia.
- the remilitarization of the League of Nations demilitarised zone of the German Rhineland region.
- The last, desperate stages of rearmament as the Second World War increasingly loomed.
These were all significant phases of interwar diplomacy and international relation which would -either by design or accident - ultimately lead to the outbreak of the Second World War.
Disarmament
Disarmament was an extremely popular public policy. The United States and Britain took the initiative in this effort, with minimal assistance from the League of Nations.
The Washington Naval Conference of 1921 was organised by U.S. Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes to decide how many capital ships each major nation might have.
There were actually no naval races in the 1920s since the new allocations were respected.
In the 1930 London Conference that resulted in the London Naval Treaty, which expanded the list of ship allocations to include cruisers and submarines, Britain played a key role.
However, the Second London Naval Treaty of 1936 was essentially toothless because Japan, Germany, Italy, and the USSR refused to sign it. So, rearmament for a seemingly inevitable war with Germany and Japan became an issue when naval disarmament failed.
U.S. Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes.
Roaring Twenties
There were many novel and highly visible social and cultural trends and innovations during the Roaring Twenties. These trends, made possible by sustained economic prosperity, were most visible in major cities like New York City, Chicago, Paris, Berlin, and London. Art Deco peaked during the Jazz Age. For women, knee-length skirts and dresses became socially acceptable, as did bobbed hair with a Marcel wave. The "Flappers" were the young women who pioneered these trends.
After the war, despite hyper-emotional wartime passions in the United States, France, and Germany, "normalcy" returned to politics.
Leftist revolutions failed in Finland, Poland, Germany, Austria, Hungary, and Spain, but succeeded in Russia, where Marxism and Marxism-Leninism developed. After threatening a march on Rome, Mussolini led the National Fascist Party to power in Italy in 1922.
'Flapper' girls in the 1920's.
My Fair Lady - 1920s Art Deco poster.
Nearly all of the European nations had some economic development in the 1920s, and by the end of the decade, the majority had recovered or even surpassed their pre-war levels of production and revenue. Western Europe did severely as a result of the First World War and the Russian Civil War, while the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, and Greece did exceptionally well.
Nearly all of the European nations had some economic growth in the 1920s, and by the decade's close, the majority had managed to reach or even surpass their pre-war levels of production and revenue. Due to the First World War and the Russian Civil War, Western Europe performed poorly, whereas the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, and Greece performed particularly well.
With the advent of radio, vehicles, telephones, electric lighting, and appliances, affluence in advanced countries reached middle-class households as well as a large portion of the working class. Unprecedented industrial expansion, faster consumer demand and expectations, and substantial changes in way of life and culture were all observed. Celebrities, particularly athletes and movie stars, came under public scrutiny.
Along with opulent movie theatres, major cities constructed sizable sports stadiums for the fans. Agriculture's continuous mechanisation led to an increase in output, which decreased prices and eliminated many farm jobs. They frequently relocated to surrounding industrial centres and towns.
The right to vote
The issue of the Women’s right to vote had steadily gained momentum since the previous century. By the Interwar period, women were increasingly granted the right to vote, and they sought to make use of this right by mobilising votes for issues that affected women, such as the right to work.
However, Women's rights were not fully respected, and they were often relegated to second-class status. It took another global conflict – the Second World War – for more significant strides to be made regarding equality for women.
Bettmann Archive, via Getty Images
The Great Depression
After 1929, there was a devastating global economic crisis known as the Great Depression. Different countries experienced it at different times; in the majority, it began in 1929 and continued until the late 1930s. The depression of the 20th century was the longest, deepest, and most pervasive one ever.
The stock market fall on October 29, 1929, which started the depression, made it into the global news (known as Black Tuesday). The GDP of the entire world decreased by about 15% from 1929 and 1932. In contrast, during the Great Recession from 2008 to 2009, the global GDP decreased by less than 1%.
A family of migrant workers fleeing from the drought in Oklahoma camp by the roadside in Blythe, California, USA. 1936.
Dorothea Lange/Getty Images; Ryan Stennes
By the middle of the 1930s, some economies had begun to recover. However, the consequences of the Great Depression persisted in many nations until the start of the Second World War.
Germany's Weimar Republic saw two periods of political and economic unrest, the first of which culminated in the attempted Beer Hall Putsch and German Hyperinflation in 1923.
The second convulsion culminated in the further growth of Nazism and was caused by the global depression and Germany's terrible monetary policy. Japan increased its assertiveness throughout Asia, particularly against China.
Defendants in the Beer Hall Putsch trial, 1923.
The rise of Fascism
In the 1920s, democracy and wealth coexisted successfully in large measures.
However, the economic disaster of the Great Depression led to a lack of belief in democracy's effectiveness and contributed to its demise across most of Europe and Latin America, including the Baltic and Balkan states, Poland, Spain, and Portugal, as well as the Baltic and Balkan countries.
In Germany, Italy, and Japan, strong anti-democratic regimes came to power.
Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini walk by a row of saluting Italian soldiers during a visit from Germany's new chancellor. Venice, Italy. June 1934.
Fascist Italy: 44 Harrowing Photos Of Life Under Mussolini (allthatsinteresting.com)
In 1922, fascism overthrew the Kingdom of Italy while communism remained firmly entrenched in the isolated Soviet Union. As the Great Depression grew worse,
Nazism triumphed in Germany, fascism spread to many other European nations, and it also played a significant role in a number of Latin American nations.
Fascist parties emerged, sensitive to regional right-wing traditions but also sharing traits that were typically extreme militaristic nationalism, a desire for economic self-containment, threats and aggression toward neighbouring countries, oppression of minorities, mockery of democracy while using its techniques to mobilise an enraged middle-class base, and disdain for cultural liberalism.
Italian Fascist Magazine Poster.
Crowds outside the Argentine National Congress during the right-wing coup d'état. in 1930.
Fascists, who were frequently led by autocrats like Benito Mussolini or Adolf Hitler, valued violence, dominance by men, and a "natural" hierarchy.
When fascism was in control, liberalism and human rights were abandoned, and personal goals and beliefs were put second to what the party deemed to be best.
The failure of the League
The League of Nations, established in 1920 as a response to the devastation of World War I, aimed to maintain international peace and prevent future conflicts.
It was envisioned as an organization where nations could come together, discuss disputes, and resolve conflicts through diplomacy rather than resorting to war.
However, despite its noble goals, the League of Nations ultimately failed to fulfill its intended purpose.
One of the key reasons for its failure was the absence of major world powers, such as the United States and the Soviet Union.
The United States, despite being one of the major proponents of the League's formation, never joined the organization due to domestic political opposition. The absence of these powerful nations weakened the League's authority and limited its ability to enforce its decisions.
The League of Nations was powerless to prevent the Japanese Invasion of Manchuria in 1931.
Japanese Troops In Manchuria #1 Photograph by Underwood Archives - Fine Art America
Furthermore, the League's structure and decision-making process proved to be cumbersome and ineffective. The principle of unanimity among member states made it difficult to take decisive action, as any dissenting member could effectively veto any proposed course of action. For example, when Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935, the League condemned the aggression but failed to take significant action due to the lack of consensus among its members.
This undermined the League's credibility and exposed its inability to respond to blatant acts of aggression.
Additionally, the League's limited military capabilities and lack of an effective means of enforcing its decisions weakened its ability to deter potential aggressors. It relied primarily on economic sanctions, which often proved ineffective in deterring aggressive states. For instance, when Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931, the League imposed economic sanctions but failed to prevent further Japanese expansion.
Italian colonial troops advance on Addis Ababa during the Second Italo-Ethiopian War. The League of Nations proved itself unable to prevent this conflict breaking out.
AO-Etiopia-1936-H-Cavalleria-indigena-verso-Addis-Abeba - Second Italo-Ethiopian War - Wikipedia
The League's failure to address underlying issues, such as economic inequality and unresolved territorial disputes, also contributed to its downfall. Economic crises, such as the Great Depression, further strained international relations and led to increased nationalism and protectionism, undermining the League's cooperative spirit.
Ultimately, the League of Nations was a victim of its own limitations and the geopolitical complexities of the interwar period. Its failure to prevent aggression and maintain peace highlighted the need for a more robust international organization, which would eventually be realized with the establishment of the United Nations after the Second World War.
Iberian conflict
The Spanish Civil War, which raged from 1936-1939, began as a civil war triggered by outside countries. This conflict began with conservative and Catholic elements revolting against the newly elected government.
Eventually, the army joined in the fight and a full-blown civil war was unleashed. Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany provided weapons to the Nationalists, while Mexico and the Soviet Union helped the Republican government fight back.
Spanish Militia Volunteer standing on a 1917 Schneider 155mm Howitzer, August 1936.
Joel Bellviure / Mediadrumworld.com
Before the Nationalists defeated the Republican troops in 1939 and won the Spanish Civil War, the conflict was characterised by several minor engagements, sieges, and atrocities.
Although the Soviet Union contributed some weapons, there was never enough to arm both the "International Brigades" of outside far-left volunteers and the diverse government militias.
Instead of expanding into a larger conflict, the civil war turned into a global ideological arena that fought Catholics, conservatives, and fascists against Communists, many socialists, and liberals.
There was a global fall in pacifism and a rising belief that another world war was inevitable and would be worthwhile to fight in.
Republican militia near Aragon front, during the Spanish Civil War. September 1936
The British Empire
A significant revaluation of British imperial policy resulted from the war's altered world order, particularly the rising of naval powers like the United States and Japan as well as the independence movements in India and Ireland.
Britain was forced to decide between supporting the United States or Japan, therefore it chose to join the Washington Naval Treaty in 1922, accepting naval parity with the United States instead of renewing the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. In Britain, the security of the empire was a major worry because it was essential to national pride, finances, and a trade-based economy.
The British Raj: A Englishman enjoying the benefits of British rule.
India gave the Empire in the First World War great support. It hoped for a reward but was unable to obtain statehood because the British Raj maintained power and feared a repeat of the uprising of 1857.
The Amritsar Massacre helped spur the Congress Party, led by Mohandas Gandhi, which became the focal point of an upsurge in Indian nationalism.
Egypt was nominally owned by the Ottoman Empire, although de facto British rule had existed since the 1880s.
The Kingdom of Egypt received legal independence in 1922, but it remained a client state under British supervision.
In 1932, Mandatory Iraq, a British mandate since 1920, became the Kingdom of Iraq after King Faisal acceded to British demands for a military alliance and a guaranteed supply of oil.
Mohandas Gandhi was a key figure in tGandhi played a central role in India's nationalist movement through his philosophy of nonviolent resistance, inspiring millions to peacefully protest British colonial rule and ultimately leading India to independence.
Gandhi - cca 1942 (colorized) : r/OldSchoolCool (reddit.com)
British soldiers in Palestine circa 1930's.
In Palestine, Britain tried to resolve increasing disputes between the Palestinian Arab population and a growing number of Jewish settlers. A national home for the Jewish people was being established in Palestine, and Jewish immigration would be permitted up to a certain number, according to the Balfour Declaration, which had been integrated into the mandate's provisions. Conflict with the Arab population grew as a result, and in 1936 they overthrew the government.
While Britain still maintained control over foreign and defence policy, the Dominions (Canada, Newfoundland, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and the Irish Free State) obtained self-government and a measure of independence during the First World War.
The 1931 Statute of Westminster formalised the 1923 recognition of the Dominions' sovereignty over their foreign policy. In 1937, (Southern) Ireland essentially severed its ties with Britain, separating from the Commonwealth to create an independent republic.
A map of the British Empire.
British Empire - Dominance, Dominions, Expansion | Britannica
The French Empire
The French maintained a sizeable empire during the Interbellum period. According to census data from 1938, France had an imperial population of nearly 150 million people residing on 13.5 million square kilometres outside of France.
Of the entire population, 64.7 million people lived in Africa, 31.2 million in Asia, and 900,000 were residents of the French West Indies or South Pacific islands. French Indochina had 26.8 million people (in five different colonies),
French Algeria had 6.6 million, the French protectorate in Morocco had 5.4 million, and French West Africa had 35.2 million people (in nine colonies) as its greatest colonies. 1.9 million Europeans and 350,000 "assimilated" locals are included in the total.
French Colonial Service recruitment poster.
Failure of the Weimar Republic
Germany, 1923: banknotes had lost so much value that they were used as wallpaper.
Bundesarchiv, Bild 102-00104 / Pahl, Georg / CC-BY-SA 3.0
The heavily industrialised Ruhr district was captured by French and Belgian forces when Germany stopped making its reparations payments.
The German government encouraged the Ruhr region's residents to engage in passive resistance in response.
Hyperinflation was brought on by the German government's massive paper money printing, which also hurt the French economy. Although the passive resistance was successful, many people lost all of their savings due to hyperinflation.
Due to internal unrest, anti-democratic Nazis, Nationalists, and Communists engaged in street combat.
The heavily industrialised Ruhr district was occupied by French and Belgian forces when Germany stopped making its reparations payments. The German government encouraged the Ruhr region's residents to engage in passive resistance in response.
Hyperinflation was brought on by the German government's massive paper money printing, which also hurt the French economy. Although the passive resistance was successful, many people lost all of their savings due to hyperinflation.
Furthermore, due to the constant upheaval and unrest, anti-democratic Nazis, Nationalists, and Communists increasingly engaged in street combat.
Rise of the Nazi's
In January 1933, Hitler took office and launched an aggressive regime intended to give Germany political and economic dominance throughout central Europe. He didn't make an effort to find the lost colonies. The Nazis declared the Soviet Union and Communists to be their deadliest enemies, along with Jews, up until August 1939.
Hitler's 1930s diplomatic approach consisted of making what appeared to be reasonable requests and threatening war if they were not met. When opponents made an effort to placate him, he took the gains that were presented before moving on to the next one. Germany rejected the Versailles Treaty, withdrew from the League of Nations, and started to rearm as a result of its aggressive approach.
Rise of the Nazi's: Adolf Hitler addressing his supporters.
Hitler's Germany gave huge amounts of military help to Franco in the Spanish Civil War, remilitarized the Rhineland, and established the Pact of Steel alliance with Mussolini's Italy. After the Munich Agreement with Britain and France,
Germany occupied Czechoslovakia in 1938 and grabbed Austria, which was thought to be a German state.
After signing a non-aggression agreement with the Soviet Union in August 1939, Germany attacked Poland in September 1939 as retaliation for Poland's unwillingness to cede the Free City of Danzig.
A little earlier than the Nazis anticipated or were prepared for, Britain and France declared war, and World War II started.
The Eldorado nightclub became the Nazi SA’s headquarters – proof the Weimar era in Germany was at an end.
17 Reasons Why Germany’s Weimar Republic Was a Party-Lovers Paradise (historycollection.com)
Fascist Italy
After the March on Rome in 1922, Benito Mussolini, the leader of the Italian fascist movement, became leader of the country. Imperial expansion started to appear more frequently in Mussolini's speeches in the late 1920s. One of Mussolini's objectives was for Italy to rise to the position of the dominating force in the Mediterranean, capable of challenging either France or Britain or gaining access to the Atlantic and Indian Oceans.
Supporters of the Fascist Party march in a parade. Milan, Italy. November 1928.
The Second Italo-Ethiopian War in 1936, which saw Italy annex Ethiopia and show the League of Nations' growing impotence, was precipitated by the Abyssinia Crisis and its unsuccessful resolution.
In 1939, Italy invaded and annexed Albania as a separate kingdom in personal union with the Italian crown.
Further reading
The inter-war period was fraught with crisis worldwide, as the aftermath of World War I left unresolved conflicts and uncertainties. Overy scrutinizes pivotal events such as the Russian Revolution's aftermath, the Wall Street Crash of 1929, and the ensuing economic turmoil that rocked capitalist nations. He explores the rise of dictatorships over democracy in countries like Italy, Spain, and Germany, shedding light on the factors that led to the outbreak of World War II in 1939.
"Fascism: A History" offers a comprehensive exploration of fascism, examining its varied manifestations in Italy, Germany, France, and Britain. It delves into its evolution leading up to and during World War II, and evaluates post-war fascism while considering its prospects in a changing Europe. Through vivid portrayals of Mussolini, Hitler, Oswald Mosley, and other pivotal figures, the book provides a lucid, dramatic, and challenging analysis, establishing itself as a definitive work on the subject.
In the aftermath of World War I, the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 convened, bringing world leaders to the forefront of global governance. Over six transformative months, they grappled with the daunting task of dismantling bankrupt empires and shaping new nations. Led by Woodrow Wilson, Lloyd George, and Clemenceau, the conference aimed to establish a lasting peace. Margaret MacMillan contends that while the peacemakers faced insurmountable challenges, they should not bear sole responsibility for subsequent conflicts.
Richard Overy's updated edition of this acclaimed work delves into the intricate factors precipitating the Second World War. Offering a multinational perspective, Overy examines how imperial competition, economic strains, and internal politics fueled the conflict. As the aftermath of World War I unfolded, the victors grappled with the daunting challenge of preventing a second global upheaval. Overy's analysis sheds light on the complex interplay of forces that ultimately led to the outbreak of hostilities.
In his exploration of the tumultuous decade following World War I, Brendon delves into the struggles faced by major powers like the USA, Germany, Italy, France, Britain, Japan, and Russia. Against the backdrop of economic depression and political upheaval, iconic urban centers dimmed as unemployment, hardship, and fear gripped societies worldwide. From Dachau to the Dust Bowl, The Dark Valley vividly portrays the era's leaders and the daily experiences of people amidst global turmoil.
During the inter-war period, global turmoil prevailed as the aftermath of the Second World War left numerous unresolved conflicts. Overy's analysis delves into pivotal events such as the Russian Revolution, the Wall Street Crash, and the ensuing economic turmoil that undermined capitalist stability. He explores the rise of dictatorships in Italy, Spain, Germany, the Baltic States, and the Balkans, shedding light on the factors that precipitated the outbreak of World War II in 1939.
Sources:
https://allthatsinteresting.com/colorized-great-depression-pictures
Dorothea Lange/Getty Images; Ryan Stennes
Joel Bellviure / Mediadrumworld.com
Imperial War Museum
https://allthatsinteresting.com/fascist-italy
https://www.nytimes.com/2018/08/27/opinion/how-to-celebrate-a-complicated-win-for-women.html
Bettmann Archive, via Getty Images
https://www.flickr.com/photos/39411748@N06/8189516006/in/photostream/
Library of Congress
Bundesarchiv, Bild 102-00104 / Pahl, Georg / CC-BY-SA 3.0